Chapter 2 - Military Service and Courage

Summary

This chapter focuses on ideals relevant to those liable to military service. The first half examines the relationship between military service, citizenship and property ownership. During the Republic the latter two were regarded as essential requirements for service in the legions, on the assumption that citizens and those with a minimum amount of property had the strongest incentive to fight on behalf of the Roman state; this gave rise to the related ideals of the citizen-soldier and the farmer-soldier. Over time, however, these reference-points shifted. During the late Republic property ownership became less important while citizenship was gradually extended to provincials, culminating in Caracalla’s universal grant in 212. Nonetheless, these ideals continued to be influential through Late Antiquity. The second half focuses on the ideal of courage, especially as epitomised by the concept of virtus. Its relationship to performance in battle (including single combat), to manliness and to religious ritual during the Republic is considered, as is the evolution of the concept during the Principate and Late Antiquity. Attention is also given to instances of female courage.