Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Preface
- 1 Urban ecology
- 2 Urbanisation
- 3 Urban environments and ecosystem functions
- 4 Individual species and urbanisation
- 5 Species diversity and urbanisation: patterns, drivers and implications
- 6 Urbanisation and alien invasion
- 7 Interactions between people and nature in urban environments
- 8 Urban ecology and human social organisation
- 9 Urban ecology and human health and wellbeing
- 10 Bringing cities alive: the importance of urban green spaces for people and biodiversity
- 11 Integrating nature values in urban planning and design
- 12 Urban futures
- Index
- References
9 - Urban ecology and human health and wellbeing
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 June 2012
Edited by
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Preface
- 1 Urban ecology
- 2 Urbanisation
- 3 Urban environments and ecosystem functions
- 4 Individual species and urbanisation
- 5 Species diversity and urbanisation: patterns, drivers and implications
- 6 Urbanisation and alien invasion
- 7 Interactions between people and nature in urban environments
- 8 Urban ecology and human social organisation
- 9 Urban ecology and human health and wellbeing
- 10 Bringing cities alive: the importance of urban green spaces for people and biodiversity
- 11 Integrating nature values in urban planning and design
- 12 Urban futures
- Index
- References
Summary
The importance of urban greening
Westernised societies are becoming more and more urbanised, and throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries the number of people living in urban settings has steadily increased. More than half of the world's population currently live in urban areas (UNFPA 2007) and this proportion is still set to increase (Pretty 2007). Urban environments expose people to many stressors, such as traffic noise and congestion, crowding and fear of crime, and are often a source of continual demands prohibiting restoration from mental fatigue (van den Berg et al. 2007). Everyday life revolves around complex information processing activities requiring directed attention (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Our capacity for this type of concentrated attention is finite, so it is regularly taxed to its limit, leading to mental fatigue. This is a state characterised by inattentiveness, indecisiveness and increased irritability, and we have fewer cognitive resources available to manage everyday tasks, leading to increased stress (Kaplan 1995). To restore our capacity for directed attention, we need to spend time in settings that utilise involuntary attention requiring no cognitive effort. Having contact with nature and green spaces promotes this type of attention restoration, alleviates fatigue and reduces stress. Thus, with ongoing urban and suburban sprawl, the importance of access to nearby nature is paramount, especially for those regularly exposed to the pressures of urban life.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Urban Ecology , pp. 202 - 229Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2010
References
, , and (2001). Perceived environmental aesthetics and convenience and company are associated with walking for exercise among Australian adults. Preventive Medicine, 33, 434–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , et al. (2007). Who benefits from access to green space? A case study from Sheffield, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning, 83, 187–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2009). The effects of green exercise on psychological health and wellbeing.Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Essex, Colchester.Google Scholar
, and (2005). The significance of parks to physical activity and public health: a conceptual model. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 159–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2002). The association between urban form and physical activity in US adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 74–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25, 249–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2004). Natural Fit. Can Green Space and Biodiversity Increase Levels of Physical Activity?Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.Google Scholar
(2005). Worcestershire Forest Schools. Available at http://www.bishopswoodcentre.org.uk/schools/forest.html
and (2003). Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running?Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 141–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1988). People, parks and the urban green: a study of popular meanings and values for open spaces in the city. Urban Studies, 25, 455–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2003). The effects of park and urban settings on the moods and cognitive strategies of female runners. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26, 335–55.Google Scholar
(2002). Streets of Shame. Summary of Findings from ‘Public Attitudes to Architecture and the Built Environment'. London: CABE.Google Scholar
(2004). The Value of Public Space. How High Quality Parks and Public Spaces Create Economic, Social and Environmental Value. London: CABE.Google Scholar
(2005). Decent Parks? Decent Behaviour? The Link between the Quality of Parks and User Behaviour. London: CABE.Google Scholar
(2009). Healthy places terminology. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/healthyplaces/terminology.htm (accessed 28 May 2009).
(2004). The role of urban parks for the sustainable city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 68, 129–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , et al.(2007). Contribution of public parks to physical activity. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 509–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (1997). Where does community grow? The social context created by nature in urban public housing. Environment and Behaviour, 29, 468–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2002). Exploring the effect of the environment on physical activity: a study examining walking to work. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 36–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2001). Removing Barriers Creating Opportunities: Social Inclusion in the Countryside. 2001 Conference Proceedings of the Countryside Recreation Network, Guildhall, London, Countryside Recreation Network.Google Scholar
and (1997). Urban environment and mental health: a longitudinal study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 530–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2007). http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/what/priority/wellbeing/common-understanding.htm
, , and (2003). Natural environments – healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environment and Planning A, 35, 1717–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2002). Green Spaces Better Places. Final Report of the Urban Green Spaces Taskforce. UK: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.Google Scholar
, and (2005). Graffiti, greenery and obesity in adults: secondary analysis of European cross-sectional survey. British Medical Journaldoi 10.1136/bmj.38575.664549.F7: 1–2.
(2001). Beyond toxicity – human health and the natural environment. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20, 234–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2003). Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1451–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2004). Urban Sprawl and Public Health: Designing, Planning and Building for Healthy Communities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
and (2009). The scaling of green space coverage in European cities. Biology Letters, 5, 352–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2007). Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. Biology Letters, 3, 390–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2005). Urban built environment and depression: a multilevel analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59, 822–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , et al. (2005). Increasing walking: how important is distance to, attractiveness, and size of public open space?American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 169–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2002). The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 1793–812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (1983). Old people in urban parks: an exploratory investigation. Journal of Leisure Research, 15, 229–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2005). Contribution of leisure studies and recreation and park management research to the active living agenda. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(Supplement 2), 150–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (1992). The Benefits of Local Recreation and Park Services – A Nationwide Study of the Perceptions of the American Public. Pennsylvania State University, PA: College of Health and Human Development.Google Scholar
, , and (1998). The Relation Between Health and Use of Local Parks. National Recreation Foundation.Google Scholar
and (2003). Landscape planning and stress. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 2, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2006). Vitamin G: effects of green space on health, well-being and social safety. BMC Public Health, 6, doi 10.1186/1471–2458–6–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , et al. (2003). Accessible Natural Green Space Standards in Towns and Cities: A Review and Toolkit for their Implementation. Peterborough: English Nature.Google Scholar
, , and (2002). How the built environment affects physical activity: views from urban planning. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 64–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (1995). Accessible Natural Greenspace in Towns and Cities: A Review of Appropriate Size and Distance Criteria. Peterborough: English Nature, pp. 1–18.Google Scholar
, , , and (1996). Environmental influences on psychological restoration. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 37, 378–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 109–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1991). Restorative effects of natural environment experiences. Environment and Behaviour, 23, 3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , et al. (1999). Walking to work and the risk for hypertension in men: the Osaka Health Survey. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130, 21–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2004). Nature and Health. The Influence of Nature on Social, Psychological and Physical Well-being. The Hague, the Netherlands: Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for Research on Spatial Planning, Nature and the Environment.
and (1993). Humans, habitats and aesthetics. In and , eds., The Biophilia Hypothesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
, , and (2003). Parks & Recreation – Research Update from April 03: Parks, Recreation and Public Health, The Benefits are Endless. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University's College of Health and Human Development.Google Scholar
(1992). Vegetation and stress: a comparison study of varying amounts of vegetation in countryside and urban scenes. In , ed., The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development: A National Symposium. Portland: Timber Press, pp. 143–5.Google Scholar
and (1995). Nature-based recreation, mood change, and stress restoration. Leisure Sciences, 17, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2002). Environmental factors associated with adults' participation in physical activity: a review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22, 188–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2002). Greening healthcare: practicing as if the natural environment really mattered. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 8, 76–83.Google ScholarPubMed
, , et al. (2002). High prevalence disorders in urban and rural communities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 104–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2002). Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural and Evolutionary Investigations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
(1993). The role of nature in the context of the workplace. Landscape and Urban Planning, 26, 193–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2001). The nature of the view from home. Journal of Environment and Behaviour, 33, 507–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2004). Out in the country: sprawl and the quest for nature nearby. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69, 235–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001a). Aggression and violence in the inner city: effects of environment via mental fatigue. Environment and Behaviour, 33, 543–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001b). Environment and crime in the inner city – does vegetation reduce crime?Journal of Environment and Behaviour, 33, 343–67.Google Scholar
, and (1998). Transforming inner-city landscapes: trees, sense of safety and preference. Environment and Behaviour, 30, 28–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1998). Fertile ground for community: inner-city neighbourhood common spaces. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 823–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1998). Green common spaces and the social integration of inner-city older adults. Environment and Behaviour, 30, 832–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001). A comment on the market value of a room with a view. Landscape and Urban Planning, 55, 113–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2003). Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 125–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1998). Plants in the workplace: the effects of plant density on productivity, attitudes and perceptions. Environment and Behaviour, 30, 261–82.Google Scholar
and (1994). Are cities bad for your mental health?Psychological Medicine, 24, 913–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2004). Property values, recreation values, and urban greenways. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 22, 69–90.Google Scholar
(2000). The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in the Netherlands. Landscape and Urban Planning, 48, 161–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (2006). Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation?Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 587–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2006). Why is nature beneficial? The role of connectedness to nature. Environment and Behaviour, 41(5), 607–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2007). Ecotherapy: The Green Agenda for Mental Health. Mind Week Report, May 2007. London: Mind.Google Scholar
and (2008). Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population study. The Lancet, 372, 1655–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982). A prison environment's effect on health care service demands. Journal of Environmental Systems, 11, 17–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Natural Learning: Creating Environments for Rediscovering Nature's Way of Teaching. Berkeley: MIG Communications.Google Scholar
and (1978). Affective responses to natural areas near cities. Journal of Leisure Research, 10, 7–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(in collaboration with Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Environment Agency, Forestry Commission, The Broads Authority, Dartmoor National Park Authority, Exmoor National Park Authority, Lake District National Park Authority, North York Moors National Park Authority, Northumberland National Park Authority, Peak District National Park Authority and Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority) (2006). England Leisure Visits Survey, 2005.
, , , and (2004). Understanding environmental influences on walking – review and research agenda. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27, 67–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and (2000). Environmental determinants of physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 28, 153–8.Google Scholar
, and (2003). Differential correlates of physical activity in urban and rural adults of various socioeconomic backgrounds in the United States. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 29–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1998). The view from the road: implications for stress recovery and immunization. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 113–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2006). The Health Benefits of Environmental Improvements to a Circular Route at Easington Coastal Path. Report for the Environment Agency and Durham Heritage Coast by the University of Essex.Google Scholar
, and (2007). Got the Blues, Then Find Some Greenspace: The Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise Activities and Green Care. Report for Mind by the University of Essex.Google Scholar
, , , and (2005). The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Environmental Improvements at Two Sites in London and Welshpool. Report for the Environment Agency by the University of Essex.Google Scholar
and (1993). The private value of public open space within subdivisions. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 10 (Summer), 91–104.Google Scholar
(2007). The Earth Only Endures: On Reconnecting with Nature and Our Place in It. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
and (2004). Social capital in biodiversity conservation and management. Conservation Biology, 18, 631–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2004). Is nature good for you?ECOS – Quarterly Journal of the British Association of Nature Conservation, 24, 2–9.Google Scholar
, , and (2003). Green Exercise: Complementary Roles of Nature, Exercise and Diet in Physical and Emotional Well-being and Implications for Public Health Policy. CES Occasional Paper 2003–1, University of Essex.Google Scholar
, , and (2005). The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 15, 319–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (1998). The characteristics and activities of older visitors to a metropolitan park district. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 16, 1–21.Google Scholar
, , et al. (2004). A Review of Research on Outdoor Learning. National Foundation for Educational Research and King's CollegeLondon.Google Scholar
(2000). Walking, exercising and smoking: does neighbourhood matter?Social Science and Medicine, 51, 265–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1997). Exploring the patterns in people's use of a metropolitan park district. Leisure Sciences, 19, 159–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1991). Affect, cognition and urban vegetation: some effects of adding trees along city streets. Environment and Behaviour, 23, 285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2008). Associations of neighbourhood greenness with physical and mental health: do walking, social coherence and local social interaction explain the relationships?Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62, e9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(2005). Urban place: reconnecting with the natural world. In , ed., Forest, Savanna, City: Evolutionary Landscapes and Human Functioning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 237–52.Google Scholar
, and (2002). Urban residential environments and senior citizens' longevity in megacity areas: the importance of walkable green spaces. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56, 913–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and (2001). Coping with ADD: the surprising connection to green play settings. Environment and Behaviour, 33, 54–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2002). Park usage, social milieu and psychological benefits of park use reported by older urban park users from four ethnic groups. Leisure Sciences, 2, 199–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Natural versus urban scenes: some psychophysiological effects. Journal of Environment and Behaviour, 13, 523–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224, 420–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
(1999). Effects of gardens on health outcomes: theory and research. In and , eds., Healing Gardens. Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations. Marni, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 27–86.Google Scholar
, , et al. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2007). State of the World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth. New York, US: United Nations Population Fund.Google Scholar
, and (2007). Preference for nature in urbanised societies: stress, restoration and the pursuit of sustainability. Journal of Social Issues, 63, 79–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2003). Environmental preference and restoration: (how) are they related?Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 135–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2002). Urban open space in the 21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning, 60, 59–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2008). The childhood factor: adult visits to green places and the significance of childhood experience. Environment and Behaviour, 40, 111–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2000). At home with nature: effects of ‘greenness’ on children's cognitive functioning. Environment and Behaviour, 32, 775–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , et al. (2004). Factors of the physical environment associated with walking and bicycling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36, 725–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (1998). Nature and mental health: biophilia and biophobia. In , ed., The Environment and Mental Health: A Guide for Clinicians. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 175–92.Google Scholar
(1948). Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization. As adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946, and entered into force on 7 April 1948.Google Scholar
and (1999). Urban waterfront regeneration in the Mersey Basin, North West England. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 42, 565–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 17
- Cited by