Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T19:01:50.724Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 6 - A Dangerous Foot in the Door

The Impact of Race-Related Thoughts and Feelings on Healthcare Disparities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 September 2023

Louis A. Penner ,
John F. Dovidio ,
Nao Hagiwara  and
Brian D. Smedley
Louis A. Penner
Affiliation:
Wayne State University, Michigan
John F. Dovidio
Affiliation:
Yale University, Connecticut and Diversity Science, Oregon
Nao Hagiwara
Affiliation:
University of Virginia
Brian D. Smedley
Affiliation:
Urban Institute, Washington DC
Get access

Summary

This chapter describes the role of individuals’ race-related thoughts and feelings in racial disparities in healthcare. Racial treatment disparities exist across a wide variety of medical settings and problems. Race-related thoughts and feelings – both implicit and explicit – play an important role in Black people receiving poorer healthcare. They affect the quality of communication between non-Black physicians and Black patients. Good physician–patient communication is critical to effective treatments; however, on average, communication is poorer in racially discordant (i.e., cross-race) medical interactions than racially concordant (i.e., same race) ones. Specific race-related thoughts and feelings, such as racial bias and medical mistrust also affect the quality of healthcare. Most physicians claim to be color blind when treating their patients but, in fact, physicians’ explicit and implicit racial bias negatively affect their perceptions of Black patients and how they act toward them. The behaviors of high implicit bias physicians can often have a negative impact on their Black patients. Black patients’ experiences with racial discrimination also affect race-related thoughts and feelings relevant to their medical care. Experiences with discrimination can result in greater medical mistrust, which makes people less likely to (1) experience positive outcomes from their healthcare and (2) engage in health-promoting behaviors.

Keywords

explicit racial biasimplicit racial biasmedical mistrustpatient-centered communicationphysician–patient interactionsrace-related thoughts and feelingsracial stereotypesracial treatment disparitiesracially discordant medical interactionsstandard of care
Type
Chapter
Information
Unequal Health
Anti-Black Racism and the Threat to America's Health
 , pp. 250 - 296
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Galarneau, C. (2018). Getting King’s words right. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 29(1), 5–8. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/686948/pdfGoogle Scholar
Democracy Now. (2020, December 30). “This is how black people get killed”: Dr. Susan Moore dies of COVID after decrying racist care [Video].YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7v1Oyp_bBGkGoogle Scholar
Edwards, R. R., Doleys, D. M., Fillingim, R. B., & Lowery, D. (2001). Ethnic differences in pain tolerance: Clinical implications in a chronic pain population. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63(2), 316–323. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200103000-00018Google Scholar
Campbell, C. M., & Edwards, R. R. (2012). Ethnic differences in pain and pain management. Pain Management, 2(3), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.2217/pmt.12.7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joynt, M., Train, M. K., Robbins, B. W., Halterman, J. S., Caiola, E., & Fortuna, R. J. (2013). The impact of neighborhood socioeconomic status and race on the prescribing of opioids in emergency departments throughout the United States. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(12), 1604–1610. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23797920/Google Scholar
Lee, H. H., Lewis, C. W., & McKinney, C. M. (2016). Disparities in emergency department pain treatment for toothache. JDR Clinical & Translational Research, 1(3), 226–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/2380084416655745Google Scholar
Berger, A. J., Wang, Y., Rowe, C., Chung, B., Chang, S., & Haleblian, G. (2021). Racial disparities in analgesic use amongst patients presenting to the emergency department for kidney stones in the United States. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 39(1), 71–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.01.017Google Scholar
Islam, J. Y., Deveaux, A., Previs, R. A., & Akinyemiju, T. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in palliative care utilization among gynecological cancer patients. Gynecologic Oncology, 160(2), 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2020.11.031Google Scholar
Mukhopadhyay, A., D’Angelo, R., Senser, E., Whelan, K., Wee, C. C., & Mukamal, K. J. (2020). Racial and insurance disparities among patients presenting with chest pain in the US: 2009–2015. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(7), 1373–1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2019.11.018Google Scholar
Meghani, S. H., Kang, Y., Chittams, J., McMenamin, E., Mao, J. J., & Fudin, J. (2014). African Americans with cancer pain are more likely to receive an analgesic with toxic metabolite despite clinical risks: A mediation analysis study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 32(25), 2773–2779. https://doi.org/10.1200/jco.2013.54.7992Google Scholar
Schuler, M. S., Schell, T. L., & Wong, E. C. (2021). Racial/ethnic differences in prescription opioid misuse and heroin use among a national sample, 1999–2018. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 221, 108588. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8026521/CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Subramaniam, A. V., Patlolla, S. H., Cheungpasitporn, W., Sundaragiri, P. R., Miller, P. E., Barsness, G. W., Bell, M. R., Holmes, D. R., Jr., & Vallabhajosyula, S. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in management and outcomes of cardiac arrest complicating acute myocardial infarction. Journal of American Heart Association, 10(11), e019907. https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.120.019907Google Scholar
Simon, S., & Ho, P. M. (2020). Ethnic and racial disparities in acute myocardial infarction. Current Cardiology Reports, 22(9), 88. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32648143/Google Scholar
Alkhouli, M., Alqahtani, F., Holmes, D. R., & Berzingi, C. (2019). Racial disparities in the utilization and outcomes of structural heart disease interventions in the United States. Journal of American Heart Association, 8(15), e012125. https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.119.012125Google Scholar
Bach, P. B., Schrag, D., Brawley, O. W., Galaznik, A., Yakren, S., & Begg, C. B. (2002). Survival of Blacks and Whites after a cancer diagnosis. Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 287(16), 2106–2113. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.16.2106Google Scholar
Griggs, J. J., Sorbero, M. E., Stark, A. T., Heininger, S. E., & Dick, A. W. (2003). Racial disparity in the dose and dose intensity of breast cancer adjuvant chemotherapy. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 81(1), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025481505537CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riggio, A. I., Varley, K. E., & Welm, A. L. (2021). The lingering mysteries of metastatic recurrence in breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 124(1), 13–26. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41416-020-01161-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. (2021). Adjuvant therapy for breast cancer: What it is, how to manage side effects, and answers to common questions. https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/patient-education/adjuvant-therapy-breastGoogle Scholar
Snead, F., Slade, A. N., Oppong, B. A., Sutton, A. L., & Sheppard, V. B. (2020). Narrowing racial gaps in breast cancer: Factors affecting probability of adjuvant radiation therapy. Advances in Radiation Oncology, 5(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adro.2019.07.014Google Scholar
Kheirandish, P., & Chinegwundoh, F. (2011). Ethnic differences in prostate cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 105(4), 481–485. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2011.273Google Scholar
Hayn, M. H., Orom, H., Shavers, V. L., Sanda, M. G., Glasgow, M., Mohler, J. L., & Underwood, W., III (2011). Racial/ethnic differences in receipt of pelvic lymph node dissection among men with localized/regional prostate cancer. Cancer, 117(20), 4651–4658. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.26103Google Scholar
Rude, T., Walter, D., Ciprut, S., Kelly, M. D., Wang, C., Fagerlin, A., Langford, A. T., Lepor, H., Becker, D. J., Li, H., Loeb, S., Ravenell, J., Leppert, J. T., & Makarov, D. V. (2021). Interaction between race and prostate cancer treatment benefit in the Veterans Health Administration. Cancer, 127(21), 3985–3990. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.33643Google Scholar
Schwartz, K., Powell, I. J., Underwood, W., George, J., Yee, C., & Banerjee, M. (2009). Interplay of race, socioeconomic status, and treatment on survival of patients with prostate cancer. Urology, 74(6), 1296–1302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2009.02.058Google Scholar
Bliton, J. N., Parides, M., Muscarella, P., Papalezova, K. T., & In, H. (2021). Understanding racial disparities in gastrointestinal cancer outcomes: Lack of surgery contributes to lower survival in African American patients. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, 30(3), 529–538. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.Epi-20-0950Google Scholar
Shavers, V. L., & Brown, M. L. (2002). Racial and ethnic disparities in the receipt of cancer treatment. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 94(5), 334–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/94.5.334Google Scholar
National Institute on Aging. (n. d.). End of life: What are palliative care and hospice care? National Institutes of Health. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-are-palliative-care-and-hospice-careGoogle Scholar
National Cancer Institute. (2023, January 18). Planning the transition to end-of-life care in advanced cancer (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version. National Institutes of Health. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26389513/Google Scholar
Mullins, M. A., Ruterbusch, J. J., Clarke, P., Uppal, S., Wallner, L. P., & Cote, M. L. (2021). Trends and racial disparities in aggressive end-of-life care for a national sample of women with ovarian cancer. Cancer, 127(13), 2229–2237. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.33488Google Scholar
Perry, L. M., Walsh, L. E., Horswell, R., Miele, L., Chu, S., Melancon, B., Lefante, J., Blais, C. M., Rogers, J. L., & Hoerger, M. (2021). Racial disparities in end-of-life care between Black and White adults with metastatic cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 61(2), 342–349.e1. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32947018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karanth, S., Rajan, S. S., Revere, F. L., & Sharma, G. (2019). Factors affecting racial disparities in end-of-life care costs among lung cancer patients: A SEER-Medicare-based Study. American Journal of Clinical Oncology, 42(2), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1097/coc.0000000000000485Google Scholar
Mar, J. (2018, November 16). Racial disparities in end-of-life care – How mistrust keeps many African Americans away from hospice. Center for Health Journalism. https://centerforhealthjournalism.org/fellowships/projects/racial-disparities-end-life-care-how-mistrust-keeps-many-african-americans-awayGoogle Scholar
Mack, J. W., Paulk, M. E., Viswanath, K., & Prigerson, H. G. (2010). Racial disparities in the outcomes of communication on medical care received near death. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(17), 1533–1540. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2010.322CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goyal, M. K., Kuppermann, N., Cleary, S. D., Teach, S. J., & Chamberlain, J. M. (2015). Racial disparities in pain management of children with appendicitis in emergency departments. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(11), 996–1002. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.1915Google Scholar
Gerber, J. S., Prasad, P. A., Localio, A. R., Fiks, A. G., Grundmeier, R. W., Bell, L. M., Wasserman, R. C., Rubin, D. M., Keren, R., & Zaoutis, T. E. (2013). Racial differences in antibiotic prescribing by primary care pediatricians. Pediatrics, 131(4), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-2500Google Scholar
Lipman, T. H., Smith, J. A., Patil, O., Willi, S. M., & Hawkes, C. P. (2021). Racial disparities in treatment and outcomes of children with type 1 diabetes. Pediatric Diabetes, 22(2), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.13139Google Scholar
Bitterman, D. S., Bona, K., Laurie, F., Kao, P.-C., Terezakis, S. A., London, W. B., & Haas-Kogan, D. A. (2020). Race disparities in proton radiotherapy use for cancer treatment in patients enrolled in Children’s Oncology Group trials. JAMA Oncology, 6(9), 1465–1468. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.2259Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. J., Lindholm, E. B., Levy, C. F., Fish, J. D., & Glick, R. D. (2017). Racial and ethnic disparities in treatment and survival of pediatric sarcoma. Journal of Surgical Research, 219, 43–49. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29078908/Google Scholar
Gallegos, A., Dudovitz, R., Biely, C., Chung, P. J., Coker, T. R., Barnert, E., Guerrero, A. D., Szilagyi, P. G., & Nelson, B. B. (2021). Racial disparities in developmental delay diagnosis and services received in early childhood. Academic Pediatrics, 21(7), 1230–1238. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34020100/Google Scholar
Morgan, P., Staff, J., Hillemeier, M. M., Farkas, G., & Maczuga, S. (2013). Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis from kindergarten to eighth grade. Pediatrics, 132(1) 85–93. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23796743/Google Scholar
Arnold, M., Hsu, L., Pipkin, S., McFarland, W., & Rutherford, G. W. (2009). Race, place and AIDS: The role of socioeconomic context on racial disparities in treatment and survival in San Francisco. Social Science & Medicine, 69 (1), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.04.019Google Scholar
Oloyede, E. O. (2017). A review of hypertension treatment disparities. Journal of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Therapy, 7(1), 24–28. https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:adp:ojocct:v:7:y:2017:i:1:p:24-28Google Scholar
Balla, S., Gomez, S. E., & Rodriguez, F. (2020). Disparities in cardiovascular care and outcomes for women from racial/ethnic minority backgrounds. Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine, 22(12), 75. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33223802/Google Scholar
Curtis, J. R., McClure, L. A., Delzell, E., Howard, V. J., Orwoll, E., Saag, K. G., Safford, M., & Howard, G. (2009). Population-based fracture risk assessment and osteoporosis treatment disparities by race and gender. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24(8), 956–962. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2710475/Google Scholar
Branson, C. O., Ferree, A., Hohler, A. D., & Saint-Hilaire, M.-H. (2016). Racial disparities in Parkinson disease: A systematic review of the literature. Advances in Parkinson’s Disease, 5(4), 87. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7458499/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akinhanmi, M. O., Biernacka, J. M., Strakowski, S. M., McElroy, S. L., Balls Berry, J. E., Merikangas, K. R., Assari, S., McInnis, M. G., Schulze, T. G., LeBoyer, M., Tamminga, C., Patten, C., & Frye, M. A. (2018). Racial disparities in bipolar disorder treatment and research: A call to action. Bipolar Disorders, 20(6), 506–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/bdi.12638Google Scholar
Wiltz, J. L., Feehan, A. K., Molinari, N. M., Ladva, C. N., Truman, B. I., Hall, J., Block, J. P., Reasmussen, S. A., Denson, J. L., Trick, W. E., Weiner, M. G., Koumans, W., Gundlapalli, A., Carton, T. W., & Boehmer, T. K. (2022). Racial and ethnic disparities in receipt of medications for treatment of COVID-19 – United States, March 2020–August 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71(3), 96–102. https://www.asahp.org/asahp-newswire/2022/1/18/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-receipt-of-treatment-medicationsGoogle Scholar
Gangopadhyaya, A. (2021, July). Do Black and White patients experience similar rates of adverse safety events at the same hospital? Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. https://www.rwjf.org/en/insights/our-research/2021/07/do-black-and-white-patients-experience-similar-rates-of-adverse-safety-events-at-the-same-hospital.htmlGoogle Scholar
Saha, S., Freeman, M., Toure, J., Tippens, K. M., Weeks, C., & Ibrahim, S. (2008). Racial and ethnic disparities in the VA health care system: A systematic review. Journal of Internal Medicine, 23(5), 651–671. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18301951/Google Scholar
Kanwal, F., Kramer, J., El-Serag, H., Frayne, S., Clark, J., Cao, Y., Taylor, T., Smith, D., White, D., & Asch, S. M. (2006). Race and gender differences in the use of direct acting antiviral agents for hepatitis c virus. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 63(3), 291–299. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/63/3/291/2595031Google Scholar
Yong, C., Azarabal, F., Abnousi, F., Heidenreich, P., Schmitt, S., Fan, J., Than, C., Ullal, A., Yang, F., Phibbs, C., Frayne, S., Ho, M., Shore, S., Mahaffey, K., & Turakhia, M. (2016). Racial differences in quality of anticoagulation therapy for atrial fibrillation (from the TREAT-AF Study) The American Journal of Cardiology, 117 (1), 61–63. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26552504/Google Scholar
Tehranifar, P., Neugut, A. I., Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., Liao, Y., Desai, M., & Terry, M. B. (2009). Medical advances and racial/ethnic disparities in cancer survival. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, and Prevention, 18(10), 2701–2708. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.Epi-09-0305Google Scholar
Takeshita, J., Wang, S., Loren, A. W., Mitra, N., Shults, J., Shin, D. B., & Sawinski, D. L. (2020). Association of racial/ethnic and gender concordance between patients and physicians with patient experience ratings. JAMA Network Open, 3(11), e2024583–e2024583. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.24583Google Scholar
Shen, M. J., Peterson, E. B., Costas-Muñiz, R., Hernandez, M. H., Jewell, S. T., Matsoukas, K., & Bylund, C. L. (2018). The effects of race and racial concordance on patient-physician communication: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 5(1), 117–140. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28275996/Google Scholar
Hagiwara, N., Dovidio, J. F., Stone, J., & Penner, L. A. (2020). Applied racial/ethnic healthcare research using implicit measures. Social Cognition, 38(suppl) s68–s97. https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/pdf/10.1521/soco.2020.38.supp.s68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, R. M., & Street, R. L. Jr. (2007). Patient-centered communication in cancer care: Promoting healing and reducing suffering. National Cancer Institute, NIH Publication No. 07-6225, Bethesda. https://scirp.org/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1678055Google Scholar
King, A., & Hoppe, R. B. (2013). “Best practice” for patient-centered communication: A narrative review. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 5(3), 385–393. https://doi.org/10.4300/jgme-d-13-00072.1Google Scholar
Berwick, D. M. (2009, July 9). Berwick on patient-centered care: Comments and responses. Health Affairs. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20090709.001521Google Scholar
Bertakis, K. D., & Azari, R. (2011). Patient-centered care is associated with decreased health care utilization. Journal of American Board of Family Medicine, 24(3), 229–239. https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2011.03.100170Google Scholar
Zolnierek, K. B., & Dimatteo, M. R. (2009). Physician communication and patient adherence to treatment: A meta-analysis. Medical Care, 47(8), 826–834. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e31819a5accGoogle Scholar
Sany, S. B. T., Behzhad, F., Ferns, G., & Peyman, N. (2020). Communication skills training for physicians improves health literacy and medical outcomes among patients with hypertension: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Health Services Research, 20(1), “Article number” 60. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31973765/Google Scholar
Schoenthaler, A., Knafl, G. J., Fiscella, K., & Ogedegbe, G. (2017). Addressing the social needs of hypertensive patients: The role of patient-provider communication as a predictor of medication adherence. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 10(9), e003659. https://doi.org/10.1161/circoutcomes.117.003659Google Scholar
Ulin, K., Malm, D., & Nygårdh, A. (2015). What is known about the benefits of patient-centered care in patients with heart failure. Current Heart Failure Reports, 12 (6), 350–359. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26497193/Google Scholar
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2021). National healthcare quality and disparities reports: Disparities by race/ethnicity, income, insurance coverage, and metropolitan status by priority areas. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK587186/Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. A., & Perry, R. (2020). Disparities in patient-centered communication for Black and Latino men in the U.S.: Cross-sectional results from the 2010 health and retirement study. PLoS ONE, 15(9), e0238356. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238356Google Scholar
Kirmayer, L. (2012). Rethinking cultural competence. Transcultural Psychiatry, 49(2) 149–164. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1363461512444673Google Scholar
Devine, P. G., & Ash, T. L. (2022). Diversity training goals, limitations, and promise: A review of the multidisciplinary literature. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 403–429. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34280325/CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muvuka, B., Combs, R. M., Ayangeakaa, S. D., Ali, N. M., Wendel, M. L., & Jackson, T. (2020). Health literacy in African-American communities: Barriers and strategies. Health Literacy Research and Practice, 4(3), e138–e143. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7365659/Google ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux.Google Scholar
Calabrese, S. K., Earnshaw, V. A., Underhill, K., Hansen, N. B., & Dovidio, J. F. (2014). The impact of patient race on clinical decisions related to prescribing HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP): Assumptions about sexual risk compensation and implications for access. AIDS and Behavior, 18(2), 226–240. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24366572/Google Scholar
Bogart, L. M., Catz, S. L., Kelly, J. A., & Benotsch, E. G. (2001). Factors influencing physicians’ judgments of adherence and treatment decisions for patients with HIV disease. Medical Decision Making, 21(1), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989x0102100104Google Scholar
van Ryn, M., Burgess, D., Malat, J., & Griffin, J. (2006). Physicians’ perceptions of patients’ social and behavioral characteristics and race disparities in treatment recommendations for men with coronary artery disease. American Journal of Public Health, 96(2), 351–357. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2004.041806Google Scholar
Schenker, L. (2020, August 13). ‘Nine times out of 10, I was completely brushed off’: Black Chicagoans confront bias in health care, hope for change. Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-chicago-health-care-racism-george-floyd-implicit-bias--20200813-nxrujltiyvg37pks2hyf6iwb7m-story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Beach, M. C., Saha, S., Park, J., Taylor, J., Drew, P., Plank, E., Cooper, L. A., & Chee, B. (2021). Testimonial injustice: Linguistic bias in the medical records of black patients and women. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 36(6), 1708–1714. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33754318/Google Scholar
Park, J., Saha, S., Chee, B., Taylor, J., & Beach, M. C. (2021). Physician use of stigmatizing language in patient medical records. JAMA Network Open, 4(7), e2117052–e2117052. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.17052Google Scholar
Sun, M., Oliwa, T., Peek, M. E., & Tung, E. L. (2022). Negative patient descriptors: Documenting racial bias in the electronic health record. Health Affairs, 41(2). https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01423Google Scholar
Horowitz, J. M., Brown, A., & Cox, K. (2019, April 9). Race in America 2019. Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/Google Scholar
Sabin, J., Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A., & Rivara, F. P. (2009). Physicians’ implicit and explicit attitudes about race by MD race, ethnicity, and gender. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20(3), 896–913. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, R. A. (2005). Disparities and discrimination in health care coverage: A critique of the Institute of Medicine study. Perspectives in Biological Medicine, 48(1 Suppl), S26–S41. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15842085/CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., Dasgupta, N., Dovidio, J. F., Kang, J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Teachman, B. A. (2022). Implicit bias remedies: Treating discriminatory bias as a public health problem. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 23(1), 7–40. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35587951/Google Scholar
Gran-Ruaz, S., Feliciano, J., Bartlett, A., & Williams, M. (2002). Implicit racial bias across ethnoracial groups in Canada and the United States and Black mental health. Canadian Psychology/Psychogie Cannadienne, 63(4), 608–622. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cap0000323CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haider, A. H., Sexton, J., Sriram, N., Cooper, L. A., Efron, D. T., Swoboda, S., Villegas, C. V., Haut, E. R., Bonds, M., Pronovost, P. J., Lipsett, P. A., Freischlag, J. A., & Cornwell, E. E., III (2011). Association of unconscious race and social class bias with vignette-based clinical assessments by medical students. Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 306(9), 942–951. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1248Google Scholar
van Ryn, M., Hardeman, R., Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Dovidio, J. F., Herrin, J., Burke, S. E., Nelson, D. B., Perry, S., Yeazel, M., & Przedworski, J. M. (2015). Medical school experiences associated with change in implicit racial bias among 3547 students: A Medical Student CHANGES Study Report. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 30(12), 1748–1756. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26129779/Google Scholar
Schaa, K. L., Roter, D. L., Biesecker, B. B., Cooper, L. A., & Erby, L. H. (2015). Genetic counselors’ implicit racial attitudes and their relationship to communication. Health Psychology, 34(2), 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000155Google Scholar
Ivers, N. N., Johnson, D. A., & Rogers, J. L. (2021). The association between implicit racial bias and mindfulness in mental health practitioners. Journal of Counselling & Development, 99(1), 11–23. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jcad.12350Google Scholar
Patel, N., Patel, S., Cotti, E., Bardini, G., & Mannocci, F. (2019). Unconscious racial bias may affect dentists’ clinical decisions on tooth restorability: A randomized clinical trial. JDR Clinical Translational Research, 4(1), 19–28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30931761/Google Scholar
Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., West, T., Gaertner, S., Albrecht, T., Dailey, R., & Markova, T. (2010). Aversive racism and medical interactions with Black patients: A field study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(2), 436–440. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835170/Google Scholar
Blair, I. V., Steiner, J. F., Fairclough, D. L., Hanratty, R., Price, D. W., Hirsh, H. K., Wright, L. A., Bronsert, M., Karimkhani, E., Magid, D. J., & Havranek, E. P. (2013). Clinicians’ implicit ethnic/racial bias and perceptions of care among Black and Latino patients. Annals of Family Medicine, 11(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1442Google Scholar
Cooper, L. A., Roter, D. L., Carson, K. A., Beach, M. C., Sabin, J. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Inui, T. S. (2012). The associations of clinicians’ implicit attitudes about race with medical visit communication and patient ratings of interpersonal care. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 979–987. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2011.300558Google Scholar
Lowe, C., Beach, M., & Roter, D. (2020). Genetic counselor implicit bias and its effects on cognitive and affective exchanges in racially discordant simulations. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 29(3), 332–341. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jgc4.1243Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). Why can’t we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8(2), 88–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.8.2.88Google Scholar
Hagiwara, N., Slatcher, R. B., Eggly, S., & Penner, L. A. (2017). Physician racial bias and word us during racially discordant medical interactions. Health Communication, 32(4), 40–48. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161737/Google Scholar
Hagiwara, N., Dovidio, J. F., Eggly, S., Penner, L. A. (2016). The effects of racial attitudes on affect and engagement in racially discordant medical interactions between non-Black physicians and Black patients. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 19(4), 509–527. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27642254/Google Scholar
Penner, L. A., Harper, F. W. K., Dovidio, J. F., Albrecht, T. L., Hamel, L. M., Senft, N., & Eggly, S. (2017). The impact of Black cancer patients’ race-related beliefs and attitudes on racially-discordant oncology interactions: A field study. Social Science and Medicine, 191(10), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.08.034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gonzalez, R., Albrecht, T., Chapman, R., Foster, T., Harper, F., Hagiwara, N., Hamel, L., Gadgeel, S., Simon, M., & Eggly, S. (2016). The effects of oncologist implicit racial bias in racially discordant oncology interactions. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 34(24), 2874–2880. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27325865/CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moon, Z., Moss-Morris, R., Hunter, M. S., Norton, S., & Hughes, L. D. (2019). Nonadherence to tamoxifen in breast cancer survivors: A 12 month longitudinal analysis. Health Psychology, 38(10), 888–899. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000785Google Scholar
Camacho, F. T., Tan, X., Alcalá, H. E., Shah, S., Anderson, R. T., & Balkrishnan, R. (2017). Impact of patient race and geographical factors on initiation and adherence to adjuvant endocrine therapy in medicare breast cancer survivors. Medicine, 96(24), e7147. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000007147Google Scholar
Fiscella, K., Epstein, R. M., Griggs, J. J., Marshall, M. M., & Shields, C. G. (2021). Is physician implicit bias associated with differences in care by patient race for metastatic cancer-related pain? PLoS ONE, 16(10), e0257794. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257794Google Scholar
Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2005). Thin slices of racial bias. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29(1), 75–86. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10919-004-0890-2Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., & LaFrance, M. (2013). Race, ethnicity, and nonverbal behavior. In Hall, J. A. K., M. (Ed.), Nonverbal communication (pp. 671–696). DeGruyter-Mouton.Google Scholar
Hagiwara, N., Mezuk, B., Elston Lafata, J., Vrana, S. R., & Fetters, M. D. (2018). Study protocol for investigating physician communication behaviours that link physician implicit racial bias and patient outcomes in Black patients with type 2 diabetes using an exploratory sequential mixed methods design. BMJ Open, 8(10), e022623. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022623Google Scholar
Johnson, J. D., & Lecci, L. (2003). Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism: The Johnson-Lecci scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(3), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202250041Google Scholar
Hagiwara, N., Penner, L. A., Gonzalez, R., Eggly, S., Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., West, T., & Albrecht, T. L. (2013). Racial attitudes, physician-patient talk time ratio, and adherence in racially discordant medical interactions. Social Science and Medicine, 87, 123–131. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23631787/Google Scholar
Trawalter, S., Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2009). Predicting behavior during interracial interactions: A stress and coping approach. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(4), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309345850Google Scholar
Penner, L. A., Albrecht., T. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2018, June). Stigmatized patients with cancer: The impact of providers and patient’s attitudes on clinical interactions. Annual Meeting of International Conference in Communication in Healthcare, Porto, Portugal.Google Scholar
Jaiswal, J., & Halkitis, P. N. (2019). Towards a more inclusive and dynamic understanding of medical mistrust informed by science. Behavioral Medicine, 45(2), 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2019.1619511Google Scholar
Benkert, R., Cuevas, A., Thompson, H. S., Dove-Meadows, E., & Knuckles, D. (2019). Ubiquitous yet unclear: A systematic review of medical mistrust. Behavioral Medicine, 45(2), 86–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2019.1588220Google Scholar
Hamel, L., Lopes, L., Munana, C., Artiga, S., & Brodie, M. (2020, October 13). KFF/The undefeated survey on race and health. Kaiser Family Foundation. www.kff.org/report-section/kff-the-undefeated-survey-on-race-and-health-main-findings/Google Scholar
Alsan, M., & Wanamaker, M. (2017). Tuskegee and the health of Black men. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 133(1), 407–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx029Google Scholar
Williams, S. (2018, February 20). Serena Williams: What my life-threatening experience taught me about giving birth. CNN. www.cnn.com/2018/02/20/opinions/protect-mother-pregnancy-williams-opinion/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Declercq, E., & Zephyrin, L. (2020). Maternal mortality in the United States: A primer. Commonwealth Fund. https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-brief-report/2020/dec/maternal-mortality-united-states-primerGoogle Scholar
Hostetter, M., & Klein, S. (2021, January 14). Understanding and ameliorating medical mistrust among Black Americans. The Commonwealth Fund. www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/newsletter-article/2021/jan/medical-mistrust-among-black-americansGoogle Scholar
Thompson, H. S., Manning, M., Mitchell, J., Kim, S., Harper, F. W. K., Cresswell, S., Johns, K., Pal, S., Dowe, B., Tariq, M., Sayed, N., Saigh, L. M., Rutledge, L., Lipscomb, C., Lilly, J. Y., Gustine, H., Sanders, A., Landry, M., & Marks, B. (2021). Factors associated with racial/ethnic group-based medical mistrust and perspectives on COVID-19 vaccine trial participation and vaccine uptake in the US. JAMA Network Open, 4(5), e2111629. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.11629Google Scholar
Bennett, A. (2020, December 6). ‘SNL’: Michael Che expresses concerns about COVID-19 Vaccine. Urban Hollywood. https://urbanhollywood411.com/2020/12/06/snl-michael-che-has-doubts-about-covid-vaccine/Google Scholar
Hall, M. B., Vos, P., Bess, J. J., Reburn, K. L., Locklear, G. D., McAlister, J., & Bell, R. A. (2018). Cervical cancer screening behaviors and perceptions of medical mistrust among rural Black and White women. Journal of Healthcare for the Poor and Underserved, 29(4), 1368–1385. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2018.0101Google Scholar
Thompson, H. S., Valdimarsdottir, H. B., Winkel, G., Jandorf, L., & Redd, W. (2004). The Group-Based Medical Mistrust Scale: Psychometric properties and association with breast cancer screening. Preventive Medicine, 38(2), 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.09.041Google Scholar
Shelton, R. C., Winkel, G., Davis, S. N., Roberts, N., Valdimarsdottir, H., Hall, S. J., & Thompson, H. S. (2010). Validation of the Group-Based Medical Mistrust Scale among urban Black men. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25(6), 549–555. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2869405/Google Scholar
Galvan, F. H., Bogart, L. M., Klein, D. J., Wagner, G. J., & Chen, Y. T. (2017). Medical mistrust as a key mediator in the association between perceived discrimination and adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive Latino men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 40(5), 784–793. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5610598/Google Scholar
Hall, G. L., & Heath, M. (2021). Poor medication adherence in African Americans is a matter of trust. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8(4), 927–942. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33215358/Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×