Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-20T14:06:47.588Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 2 - Medicine

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2023

Edited by
Keith A. Findley ,
Cyrille Rossant ,
Kana Sasakura ,
Leila Schneps ,
Waney Squier  and
Knut Wester
Keith A. Findley
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Cyrille Rossant
Affiliation:
University College London
Kana Sasakura
Affiliation:
Konan University, Japan
Leila Schneps
Affiliation:
Sorbonne Université, Paris
Waney Squier
Affiliation:
John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford
Knut Wester
Affiliation:
Universitetet i Bergen, Norway
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Investigating the Abusive Head Trauma Controversy
 , pp. 33 - 160
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Guthkelch, AN. Problems of infant retino-dural hemorrhage with minimal external injury. Houston Journal of Health Law and Policy. 2012;12:201–8.Google Scholar
Rooks, VJ, Eaton, JP, Ruess, L et al. Prevalence and evolution of intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic term infants. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008;29(6):1082–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Högberg, U, Andersson, J, Squier, W et al. Epidemiology of subdural haemorrhage during infancy: A population-based register study. Palazón-Bru A, editor. PLoS One. 2018;13(10):e0206340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinchon, M, Noizet, O, Defoort-Dhellemmes, S, Soto-Ares, G, Dhellemmes, P. Infantile subdural hematomas due to traffic accidents. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2002;37(5):245–53.Google Scholar
Guthkelch, AN. infantile subdural haematoma and its relationship to whiplash Injuries. BMJ. 1971;2(5759):430–1.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K et al. Medical findings and symptoms in infants exposed to witnessed or admitted abusive shaking: A nationwide registry study. PLoS One. 2020;15(10):e0240182.Google Scholar
Feldman, KW, Melville, JD, Johnson, KL et al. Abusive head trauma follows witnessed infant shaking. Child Abuse Review [Internet]. 2022. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/car.2739.Google Scholar
Keenan, HT, Runyan, DK, Marshall, SW, Nocera, MA, Merten, DF. A population-based comparison of clinical and outcome characteristics of young children with serious inflicted and noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics. 2004;114(3):633–9.Google Scholar
Williams, RA. Injuries in infants and small children resulting from witnessed and corroborated free falls. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 1991;31(10):1350–2.Google Scholar
Datta, S. Neuroradiological aspects of subdural haemorrhages. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2005;90(9):947–51.Google Scholar
Nikam, RM, Kandula, VV, Yue, X et al. Birth-related subdural hemorrhage: Prevalence and imaging morphology. Pediatric Radiology. 2021;51(6):939–46.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M, Desurmont, M, Soto-Ares, G, De Foort-Dhellemmes, S. Natural history of traumatic meningeal bleeding in infants: Semiquantitative analysis of serial CT scans in corroborated cases. Child’s Nervous System. 2010;26(6):755–62.Google Scholar
Friede, RL. Hemorrhages in asphyxiated premature infants. In Developmental neuropathology [Internet]. Heidelberg, 1989, pp. 44–58. https://bit.ly/3NBlSPE.Google Scholar
Anderst, J, Carpenter, S, Frazier, T et al. Subdural hemorrhage in a cohort with cerebral sinovenous thrombosis: Application to abusive head trauma. Child Abuse and Neglect. 2021;117:105119.Google Scholar
Vaslow, DF. Chronic subdural hemorrhage predisposes to development of cerebral venous thrombosis and associated retinal hemorrhages and subdural rebleeds in infants. Neuroradiology Journal. 2021;197140092110269.Google Scholar
Menkes, JH, Sarnat, HB, Maria, BL, editors. Child neurology. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.Google Scholar
Van den Bos, D, Zomer, S, Kubat, B. Dare to date: Age estimation of subdural hematomas, literature, and case analysis. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 2014;128(4):631–40.Google Scholar
Andersson, J, Wikström, J, Högberg, U, Wester, K, Thiblin, I. External hydrocephalus as a cause of infant subdural haematoma: Epidemiological and radiological investigations of infants suspected of being abused. Pediatric Neurology. 2021;S0887899421002125.Google Scholar
Mortazavi, MM, Denning, M, Yalcin, B et al. The intracranial bridging veins: A comprehensive review of their history, anatomy, histology, pathology, and neurosurgical implications. Child’s Nervous System. 2013;29(7):1073–8.Google Scholar
Cheshire, E, Malcolmson, R. A systematic autopsy survey of human infant bridging veins. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 2018;132:449–61.Google Scholar
Case, ME. Pathology of fatal abuse. In Child abuse: Medical diagnosis and management. 4th ed. Laskey, A., Sirotnak, A. , eds. American Academy of Pediatrics, 2020, pp. 765–820.Google Scholar
Yamashima, T, Friede, RL. Why do bridging veins rupture into the virtual subdural space? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1984;47(2):121–7.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Scheimberg, I. Evidence of occurrence of intradural and subdural hemorrhage in the perinatal and neonatal period in the context of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: An observational study from two referral institutions in the United Kingdom. Pediatric and Developmental Pathology. 2009;12(3):169–76.Google Scholar
Squier, W. The ‘shaken baby’ syndrome: Pathology and mechanisms. Acta Neuropathologica. 2011;122(5):519–42.Google Scholar
Till, K. Subdural haematoma and effusion in infancy. BMJ. 1968;3(5615):400–2.Google Scholar
Robinson, D, Kreitzer, N, Ngwenya, LB et al. Diffusion-weighted imaging reveals distinct patterns of cytotoxic edema in patients with subdural hematomas. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2021;38(19):2677–85.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Mack, J, Green, A, Aziz, T. The pathophysiology of brain swelling associated with subdural hemorrhage: The role of the trigeminovascular system. Child’s Nervous System. 2012;28:2005–15.Google Scholar
Muller, PJ, Deck, JHN. Intraocular and optic nerve sheath hemorrhage in cases of sudden intracranial hypertension. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1974;41(2):160–6.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Servaes, S, Slovis, TL et al. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1048–65.Google Scholar
Christian, CW, Taylor, AA, Hertle, RW, Duhaime, A-C. Retinal hemorrhages caused by accidental household trauma. Journal of Pediatrics. 1999;135(1):125–7.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K, Högberg, G, Högberg, U. Retinal haemorrhage in infants investigated for suspected maltreatment is strongly correlated with intracranial pathology. Acta Paediatrica. 2021:apa.16139.Google Scholar
Minns, RA, Jones, PA, Tandon, A et al. Raised intracranial pressure and retinal haemorrhages in childhood encephalopathies. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2017;59(6):597–604.Google Scholar
Emerson, MV, Jakobs, E. Ocular autopsy and histopathologic features of child abuse. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:1384–94.Google Scholar
Teow Kheng Leong, K, Abu Kassim, SNA, Sidhu, JK et al. Neonatal eye screening for 203 healthy term new-borns using a wide-field digital retinal imaging system. BMC Ophthalmology. 2021;21(1):1–10.Google Scholar
Caffey, J. On the theory and practice of shaking infants: Its potential residual effects of permanent brain damage and mental retardation. American Journal of Diseases of Children. 1972;124(2):161.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Reid, JE, Rogers, DL et al. Patterns of retinal hemorrhage associated with pediatric cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 2017;21(1):23–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattheij, M, Venstermans, C, de Veuster, I et al. Retinal haemorrhages in a university hospital: Not always abusive head injury. Acta Neurologica Belgica. 2017;117(2):515–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulvihill, AO, Jones, P, Tandon, A, Fleck, BW, Minns, RA. An inter-observer and intra-observer study of a classification of RetCam images of retinal haemorrhages in children. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2011;95(1):99–104.Google Scholar
Recognizing retinal hemorrhage patterns aids in diagnosing abuse [Internet]. https://bit.ly/3Uuts0C.Google Scholar
Shaken baby syndrome: Rotational cranial injuries. Technical report. Pediatrics. 2001;108(1):206–10.Google Scholar
Fuchs, S, Barthel, MJ, Flannery, AM, Christoffel, KK. Cervical spine fractures sustained by young children in forward-facing car seats. Pediatrics. 1989;84(2):348–54.Google Scholar
Winter, SCA, Quaghebeur, G, Richards, PG. Unusual cervical spine injury in a 1 year old. Injury. 2003;34(4):316–19.Google Scholar
Johnston, RA. Paediatric spinal injuries. Injury. 2004;35(2):105–6.Google Scholar
Brennan, LK, Rubin, D, Christian, CW et al. Neck injuries in young pediatric homicide victims: Clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2009;3(3):232–9.Google Scholar
Molina, DK, Clarkson, A, Farley, KL, Farley, NJ. A review of blunt force injury homicides of children aged 0 to 5 years in Bexar County, Texas, from 1988 to 2009. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2012;33(4):344–8.Google Scholar
Koumellis, P, McConachie, NS, Jaspan, T. Spinal subdural haematomas in children with non-accidental head injury. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2009;94(3):216–19.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Ishak, R, Zacharia, TT, Dias, MS. Imaging of spinal injury in abusive head trauma: A retrospective study. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44(9):1130–40.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Bradford, RK, Dias, MS, Moore, GJ, Boal, DKB. Spinal subdural hemorrhage in abusive head trauma: A retrospective study. Radiology. 2012;262(1):216–23.Google Scholar
Rabbitt, AL, Kelly, TG, Yan, K et al. Characteristics associated with spine injury on magnetic resonance imaging in children evaluated for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2020;50(1):83–97.Google Scholar
Baerg, J, Thirumoorthi, A, Vannix, R et al. Cervical spine imaging for young children with inflicted trauma: Expanding the injury pattern. Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2017;52(5):816–21.Google Scholar
Kadom, N, Khademian, Z, Vezina, G et al. Usefulness of MRI detection of cervical spine and brain injuries in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44(7):839–48.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children: II. Microscopic brain injury in infants. Brain. 2001;124(7):1299–1306.Google Scholar
Mortazavi, MM, Shane Tubbs, R, Riech, S et al. Anatomy and pathology of the cranial emissary veins: A review with surgical implications. Neurosurgery. 2012;70(5):1312–19.Google Scholar
Ruiz, DSM, Gailloud, P. The craniocervical venous system in relation to cerebral venous drainage. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2002;23:1500–8.Google Scholar
Choudhary, A, Dias, M. Intracranial venous drainage through spinal veins. Delaware Medical Journal. 2014;86(6):181–4.Google Scholar
Leestma, JE. Forensic aspects of intracranial equilibria. In Forensic neuropathology. 2nd ed. Leestma, JE, ed. CRC Press, 2009, pp. 386–92.Google Scholar
Hadley, MN, Sonntag, VKH, Rekate, HL, Murphy, A. The infant whiplash–shake injury syndrome: A clinical and pathological study. Neurosurgery. 1989;24(4):536–40.Google Scholar
Rutty, GN, Squier, WMV, Padfield, CJH. Epidural haemorrhage of the cervical spinal cord: A post-mortem artefact? Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 2005;31(3):247–57.Google Scholar
Kemp, AM, Joshi, AH, Mann, M et al. What are the clinical and radiological characteristics of spinal injuries from physical abuse? A systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2010;95(5):355–60.Google Scholar
Feldman, KW, Weinberger, E, Milstein, JM, Fligner, CL. Cervical spine MRI in abused infants. Child Abuse and Neglect. 1997;21(2):199–205.Google Scholar
Matshes, EW, Evans, RM, Pinckard, JK. Shaken infants die of neck trauma, not of brain trauma. Academic Forensic Pathology. 2011;1(2):82–91.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Scheimberg, I, Smith, C. Spinal nerve root β-APP staining in infants is not a reliable indicator of trauma. Forensic Science International. 2011;212(1–3):e31–5.Google Scholar
Duhaime, A-C, Christian, CW, Rorke, LB, Zimmerman, RA. Nonaccidental head injury in infants: The ‘shaken-baby syndrome’. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998;338(25):1822–9.Google Scholar
Adams, JH, Graham, DI, Murray, LS, Scott, G. Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: An analysis of 45 cases. Annals of Neurology. 1982;12(6):557–63.Google Scholar
Case, ME, Graham, MA, Handy, TC, Jentzen, JM, Monteleone, JA. Position paper on fatal abusive head injuries in infants and young children. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2001;22(2):112–22.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children: I. Patterns of brain damage. Brain. 2001;124(7):1290–8.Google Scholar
Oehmichen, M, Schleiss, D, Pedal, I et al. Shaken baby syndrome: Re-examination of diffuse axonal injury as cause of death. Acta Neuropathology. 2008;116(3):317–29.Google Scholar
Mestre, H, Du, T, Sweeney, AM et al. Cerebrospinal fluid influx drives acute ischemic tissue swelling. Science. 2020;367(6483):eaax7171.Google Scholar
Matshes, E. Abstract: Retinal and optic nerve sheath hemorrhages are not pathognomonic of abusive head injury. Annual Conference of American Academy of Forensic Sciences. 2010.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF, Tasker, RC, Hackshaw, AK et al. Dural haemorrhage in non-traumatic infant deaths: Does it explain the bleeding in ‘shaken baby syndrome’? Intradural haemorrhage in infants. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 2003;29(1):14–22.Google Scholar
Goodrich, JT. Reprint of ‘Concerning surgical intervention for the intracranial hemorrhages of the new-born’ by Harvey Cushing, M.D. Child’s Nervous System. 2000;16(8):484–92.Google Scholar
Gage, J, Gross, J, McFarlane, J. Harris, R v. London: SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE COURT OF APPEAL (CRIMINAL DIVISION); 2005. Report No.: [2005] EWCA Crim 1980.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Austin, T, Anslow, P, Weller, RO. Infant subcortical cystic leucomalacia: A distinct pathological entity resulting from impaired fluid handling. Early Human Development. 2011;87(6):421–6.Google Scholar
Canedo-Antelo, M, Baleato-González, S, Mosqueira, AJ et al. Radiologic clues to cerebral venous thrombosis. RadioGraphics. 2019;39(6):1611–28.Google Scholar
Larsen, KB, Barber, Z, Squier, W. The pathology and aetiology of subcortical clefts in infants. Forensic Science International. 2019;296:115–22.Google Scholar
Ichord, RN, Benedict, SL, Chan, AK, Kirkham, FJ, Nowak-Göttl, U. Paediatric cerebral sinovenous thrombosis: Findings of the International Paediatric Stroke Study. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2015;100(2):174–9.Google Scholar
Fineschi, V, Turillazzi, E, Neri, M, Pomara, C, Riezzo, I. Histological age determination of venous thrombosis: A neglected forensic task in fatal pulmonary thrombo-embolism. Forensic Science International. 2009;186(1–3):22–8.Google Scholar
Wu, YW, Hamrick, SEG, Miller, SP et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage in term neonates caused by sinovenous thrombosis. Annals of Neurology. 2003;54(1):123–6.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Laurent-Vannier, A. Shaken baby syndrome or non-accidental head injury caused by shaking. Update of the guidelines issued by the 2011 hearing commission. Haute Autorité de santé (HAS) and Société française de médecine physique et de réadaptation (SOFMER); 2017.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Mack, JA, Rossant, C, Squier, W, Wester, K. Thrombosis is not a marker of bridging vein rupture in infants with alleged abusive head trauma. Acta Paediatrica. 2021;110(10):2686–94.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Rambaud, C. Abusive head trauma: Don’t overlook bridging vein thrombosis. Pediatric Radiology. 2012;42(11):1298–1300.Google Scholar
Vance, BM. Ruptures of surface blood vessels on cerebral hemispheres as a cause of subdural hemorrhage. Archives of Surgery. 1950;61:992–1006.Google Scholar
Rambaud, C. Bridging veins and autopsy findings in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2015;45(8):1126–31.Google Scholar
Di Maio, VJM, Molina, K. DiMaio’s forensic pathology. 3rd ed. CRC Press, 2022. (Practical aspects of criminal and forensic investigations).Google Scholar
Arnautović, KI, Al-Mefty, O, Pait, TG, Krisht, AF, Husain, MM. The suboccipital cavernous sinus. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997;86(2):252–62.Google Scholar
Mack, J, Squier, W, Eastman, JT. Anatomy and development of the meninges: Implications for subdural collections and CSF circulation. Pediatric Radiology. 2009;39(3):200–10.Google Scholar
Dmytriw, AA, Song, JSA, Yu, E, Poon, CS. Cerebral venous thrombosis: State of the art diagnosis and management. Neuroradiology. 2018;60(7):669–85.Google Scholar

References

Wintermark, M, Lepori, D, Cotting, J et al. Brain perfusion in children: Evolution with age assessed by quantitative perfusion computed tomography. Pediatrics. 2004;113(6):1642–52.Google Scholar
Scheimberg, I, Cohen, MC, Vazquez, REZ et al. Nontraumatic intradural and subdural hemorrhage and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy in fetuses, infants, and children up to three years of age: Analysis of two audits of 636 cases from two referral centers in the United Kingdom. Pediatric and Developmental Pathology. 2013;16(3):149–59.Google Scholar
Kumar, R, Singhal, N, Mahapatra, AK. Traumatic subdural effusions in children following minor head injury. Child’s Nervous System. 2008;24(12):1391–6.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M, Joriot, S, Jissendi-Tchofo, P, Dhellemmes, P. Postmeningitis subdural fluid collection in infants: Changing pattern and indications for surgery. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2006;104(6 Suppl):383–7.Google Scholar
Roach, ES, Golomb, MR, Adams, R et al. Management of stroke in infants and children: A scientific statement from a Special Writing Group of the American Heart Association Stroke Council and the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Stroke. 2008;39(9):2644–91.Google Scholar
Hellbusch, LC. Benign extracerebral fluid collections in infancy: Clinical presentation and long-term follow-up. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2007;107(2):119–25.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Benign external hydrocephalus: A review, with emphasis on management. Neurosurgery Review. 2011;34(4):417–32.Google Scholar
Caldarelli, M, Di Rocco, C, Romani, R. Surgical treatment of chronic subdural hygromas in infants and children. Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien). 2002;144(6):581–8.Google Scholar
Park, CK, Choi, KH, Kim, MC, Kang, JK, Choi, CR. Spontaneous evolution of posttraumatic subdural hygroma into chronic subdural haematoma. Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien). 1994;127(1–2):41–7.Google Scholar
Klostranec, JM, Vucevic, D, Bhatia, KD et al. Current concepts in intracranial interstitial fluid transport and the glymphatic system: Part I. Anatomy and physiology. Radiology. 2021;301(3):502–14.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Mack, J, Green, A, Aziz, T. The pathophysiology of brain swelling associated with subdural hemorrhage: The role of the trigeminovascular system. Child’s Nervous System. 2012;28:2005–15.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Servaes, S, Slovis, TL et al. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1048–65.Google Scholar
Zouros, A, Bhargava, R, Hoskinson, M, Aronyk, KE. Further characterization of traumatic subdural collections of infancy: Report of five cases. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2004;100(5):512–18.Google Scholar
McConnell, AA. Traumatic subdural effusions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1941;4(3–4):237–56.Google Scholar
Bradley, WG. MR appearance of hemorrhage in the brain. Radiology. 1993;189(1):15–26.Google Scholar
Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn, T, Postema, FAM, Verbaan, D, Majoie, CB, Van Rijn, RR. Age determination of subdural hematomas with CT and MRI: A systematic review. European Journal of Radiology. 2014;83(7):1257–68.Google Scholar
Vezina, G. Assessment of the nature and age of subdural collections in nonaccidental head injury with CT and MRI. Pediatric Radiology. 2009;39(6):586–90.Google Scholar
Sebire, G. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in children: Risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and outcome. Brain. 2005;128(3):477–89.Google Scholar
Bordia, R, Le, M, Behbahani, S. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of subdural hemorrhage: Mimics and uncommon causes. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2021;89:71–84.Google Scholar
Krasnokutsky, MV. Cerebral venous thrombosis: A potential mimic of primary traumatic brain injury in infants. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2011;197(3):W503–7.Google Scholar
Canedo-Antelo, M, Baleato-González, S, Mosqueira, AJ et al. Radiologic clues to cerebral venous thrombosis. RadioGraphics. 2019;39(6):1611–28.Google Scholar
Poon, CS, Chang, J-K, Swarnkar, A, Johnson, MH, Wasenko, J. Radiologic diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis: Pictorial review. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2007;189(6_supplement):S64–75.Google Scholar
Garrido-Barbero, M, Arnaez, J, Loureiro, B et al. The role of Factor V Leiden, Prothrombin G20210A, and MTHFR C677 T mutations in neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. Clinical and Applied Thrombosis. 2019;25:107602961983435.Google Scholar
Anderst, J, Carpenter, S, Frazier, T et al. Subdural hemorrhage in a cohort with cerebral sinovenous thrombosis: Application to abusive head trauma. Child Abuse and Neglect. 2021;117:105119.Google Scholar
McLean, LA, Frasier, LD, Hedlund, GL. Does intracranial venous thrombosis cause subdural hemorrhage in the pediatric population? American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2012;33(7):1281–4.Google Scholar
Vaslow, DF. Chronic subdural hemorrhage predisposes to development of cerebral venous thrombosis and associated retinal hemorrhages and subdural rebleeds in infants. Neuroradiology Journal. 2021;197140092110269.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Rambaud, C. Abusive head trauma: Don’t overlook bridging vein thrombosis. Pediatric Radiology. 2012;42(11):1298–1300.Google Scholar
Rambaud, C. Bridging veins and autopsy findings in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2015;45(8):1126–31.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Mack, JA, Rossant, C, Squier, W, Wester, K. Thrombosis is not a marker of bridging vein rupture in infants with alleged abusive head trauma. Acta Paediatrica. 2021;110(10):2686–94.Google Scholar
Goodrich, JT. Reprint of ‘Concerning surgical intervention for the intracranial hemorrhages of the new-born’ by Harvey Cushing, M.D. Child’s Nervous System. 2000;16(8):484–92.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Bradford, R, Dias, MS, Thamburaj, K, Boal, DKB. Venous injury in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2015;45(12):1803–13.Google Scholar
Hahnemann, ML, Kinner, S, Schweiger, B et al. Imaging of bridging vein thrombosis in infants with abusive head trauma: The ‘tadpole sign’. European Radiology. 2015;25(2):299–305.Google Scholar
Hymel, KP, Stoiko, MA, Herman, BE et al. Head injury depth as an indicator of causes and mechanisms. Pediatrics. 2010;125(4):712–20.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Austin, T, Anslow, P, Weller, RO. Infant subcortical cystic leucomalacia: A distinct pathological entity resulting from impaired fluid handling. Early Human Development. 2011;87(6):421–6.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Ishak, R, Zacharia, TT, Dias, MS. Imaging of spinal injury in abusive head trauma: A retrospective study. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44(9):1130–40.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Bradford, RK, Dias, MS, Moore, GJ, Boal, DKB. Spinal subdural hemorrhage in abusive head trauma: A retrospective study. Radiology. 2012;262(1):216–23.Google Scholar
Koumellis, P, McConachie, NS, Jaspan, T. Spinal subdural haematomas in children with non-accidental head injury. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2009;94(3):216–19.Google Scholar

References

Wester, K. Two infant boys misdiagnosed as ‘shaken baby’ and their twin sisters: A cautionary tale. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;97:3–11.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K et al. Medical findings and symptoms in infants exposed to witnessed or admitted abusive shaking: A nationwide registry study. PLoS One. 2020;15(10):e0240182.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Stridbeck, U, Syse, A, Wikstrom, J. Re-evaluation of medical findings in alleged shaken baby syndrome and abusive head trauma in Norwegian courts fails to support abuse diagnoses. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):779–92.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Wikström, J, Lynøe, N, Eriksson, A. Unsubstantiated belief in the diagnostic accuracy of the triad of abusive head trauma may lead to incorrect diagnoses of alleged abuse cases. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):809–11.Google Scholar
Andersson, J, Wikstrom, J, Hogberg, U, Wester, K, Thiblin, I. External hydrocephalus as a cause of infant subdural hematoma: Epidemiological and radiological investigations of infants suspected of being abused. Pediatric Neurology. 2021;126:26–34.Google Scholar
Wiig, US, Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Epidemiology of benign external hydrocephalus in Norway: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2017;73:36–41.Google Scholar
Yew, AY, Maher, CO, Muraszko, KM, Garton, HJ. Long-term health status in benign external hydrocephalus. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2011;47(1):1–6.Google Scholar
Lee, HC, Chong, S, Lee, JY et al. Benign extracerebral fluid collection complicated by subdural hematoma and fluid collection: Clinical characteristics and management. Child’s Nervous System. 2018;34(2):235–45.Google Scholar
McNeely, PD, Atkinson, JD, Saigal, G, O’Gorman, AM, Farmer, JP. Subdural hematomas in infants with benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces are not pathognomonic for child abuse. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2006;27(8):1725–8.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Clinical, radiological, and demographic details of benign external hydrocephalus: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;96:53–7.Google Scholar
Alvarez, LA, Maytal, J, Shinnar, S. Idiopathic external hydrocephalus: Natural history and relationship to benign familial macrocephaly. Pediatrics. 1986;77(6):901–7.Google Scholar
Fessell, DP, Frankel, DA, Wolfson, WP. Sonography of extraaxial fluid in neurologically normal infants with head circumference greater than or equal to the 95th percentile for age. Journal of Ultrasound Medicine. 2000;19(7):443–7.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, Y, Miyao, M, Ishizu, T, Maruyama, H. Developmental changes in normal cranial measurements by computed-tomography. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 1979;21(4):425–32.Google Scholar
Libicher, M, Troger, J. Us measurement of the subarachnoid space in infants: Normal values. Radiology. 1992;184(3):749–51.Google Scholar
Marino, MA, Morabito, R, Vinci, S et al. Benign external hydrocephalus in infants. A single centre experience and literature review. Neuroradiology Journal. 2014;27(2):245–50.Google Scholar
Ingraham, F, Matson, D. Subdural hematoma in infancy. Journal of Pediatrics. 1944;24(1):1–37.Google Scholar
Hogberg, U, Andersson, J, Squier, et al. Epidemiology of subdural haemorrhage during infancy: A population-based register study. PLoS One. 2018;13(10):1–17.Google Scholar
Rooks, VJ, Eaton, JP, Ruess, L et al. Prevalence and evolution of intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic term infants. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008;29(6):1082–9.Google Scholar
Ito, H, Yamamoto, S, Komai, T, Mizukoshi, H. Role of local hyperfibrinolysis in etiology of chronic subdural hematoma. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1976;45(1):26–31.Google Scholar
Kawakami, Y, Chikama, M, Tamiya, T, Shimamura, Y. Coagulation and fibrinolysis in chronic subdural hematoma. Neurosurgery. 1989;25(1):25–9.Google Scholar
Murakami, H, Hirose, Y, Sagoh, M et al. Why do chronic subdural hematomas continue to grow slowly and not coagulate? Role of thrombomodulin in the mechanism. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2002;96(5):877–84.Google Scholar
Azais, M, Echenne, B. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement (benign external hydrocephalus) in infants. Annales de pediatrie. 1992;39(9):550–8.Google Scholar
Ghosh, PS, Ghosh, D. Subdural hematoma in infants without accidental or nonaccidental injury: Benign external hydrocephalus, a risk factor. Clinical Pediatrics. 2011;50(10):897–903.Google Scholar
Gout, A, Gautier, I, Bellaiche, M et al. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement in infancy: Simple anatomic variant or hemorrhagic risk factor? Archives de pediatrie. 1997;4(10):983–7.Google Scholar
Hellbusch, LC. Benign extracerebral fluid collections in infancy: Clinical presentation and long-term follow-up. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2007;107(2 Suppl):119–25.Google Scholar
Kapila, A, Trice, J, Spies, WG, Siegel, BA, Gado, MH. Enlarged cerebrospinal fluid spaces in infants with subdural hematomas. Radiology. 1982;142(3):669–72.Google Scholar
Laubscher, B, Deonna, T, Uske, A, Van, MG. Primitive megalocephaly in children: Natural history, medium term prognosis with special reference to external hydrocephalus. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1990;149(7):502–7.Google Scholar
McKeag, H, Christian, CW, Rubin, D et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces Clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2013;11(4):438–44.Google Scholar
Miller, D, Barnes, P, Miller, M. The significance of macrocephaly or enlarging head circumference in infants with the triad further evidence of mimics of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medical Pathology. 2015;36(2):111–20.Google Scholar
Mori, K, Sakamoto, T, Nishimura, K, Fujiwara, K. Subarachnoid fluid collection in infants complicated by subdural-hematoma. Child’s Nervous System. 1993;9(5):282–4.Google Scholar
Papasian, NC, Frim, DM. A theoretical model of benign external hydrocephalus that predicts a predisposition towards extra-axial hemorrhage after minor head trauma. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2000;33(4):188–93.Google Scholar
Piatt, JH, Jr. A pitfall in the diagnosis of child abuse: External hydrocephalus, subdural hematoma, and retinal hemorrhages. Neurosurgery Focus. 1999;7(4):e4.Google Scholar
Ravid, S, Maytal, J. External hydrocephalus: A probable cause for subdural hematoma in infancy. Pediatric Neurology. 2003;28(2):139–41.Google Scholar
Tucker, J, Choudhary, AK, Piatt, J. Macrocephaly in infancy: Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces and subdural collections. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2016;18(1):16–20.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M, Delestret, I, DeFoort-Dhellemmes, S, Desurmont, M, Noule, N. Subdural hematoma in infants: can it occur spontaneously? Data from a prospective series and critical review of the literature. Child’s Nervous System. 2010;26(9):1195–1205.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Wester, K, Gabaeff, S. Examining perinatal subdural haematoma as an aetiology of extra-axial hygroma and chronic subdural haematoma. Acta Paediatrica. 2020;109(4):659–66.Google Scholar
Ingraham, FD, Matson, D. D. Subdural hematoma in infancy. Journal of Pediatrics. 1944;24(1):1–37.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Grabar, S, Mejean, N, Rey-Salmon, C. Abusive head trauma: Judicial admissions highlight violent and repetitive shaking. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):546–55.Google Scholar
Hobbs, C, Childs, AM, Wynne, J, Livingston, J, Seal, A. Subdural haematoma and effusion in infancy: An epidemiological study. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2005;90(9):952–5.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M, de Foort-Dhellemmes, S, Desurmont, M, Delestret, I. Confessed abuse versus witnessed accidents in infants: Comparison of clinical, radiological, and ophthalmological data in corroborated cases. Child’s Nervous System. 2010;26(5):637–45.Google Scholar
Alper, G, Ekinci, G, Yilmaz, Y et al. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of benign macrocephaly in children. Journal of Child Neurology. 1999;14(10):678–82.Google Scholar
Govaert, P, Oostra, A, Matthys, D, Vanhaesebrouck, P, Leroy, J. How idiopathic is idiopathic external hydrocephalus? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 1991;33(3):274–6.Google Scholar
Miller, M, Ward, T, Stolfi, A, Ayoub, D. Overrepresentation of multiple birth pregnancies in young infants with four metabolic bone disorders: Further evidence that fetal bone loading is a critical determinant of fetal and young infant bone strength. Osteoporosis International. 2014;25(7):1861–73.Google Scholar
Nogueira, GJ, Zaglul, HF. Hypodense extracerebral images on computed-tomography in children: External hydrocephalus. A misnomer. Child’s Nervous System. 1991;7(6):336–41.Google Scholar
Roshan, K, Elizabeth, C, Chacko, A et al. External hydrocephalus: A report of 16 cases from Oman. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics. 1998;44(3):153–6.Google Scholar
Sahar, A. Pseudohydrocephalus: Megalocephaly, increased intracranial pressure and widened subarachnoid space. Neuropadiatrie. 1978;9(2):131–9.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Mirza-George, N, Christian, CW, Forbes, BJ. Odds of abuse associated with retinal hemorrhages in children suspected of child abuse. Journal of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology. 2009;13(3):268–72.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Forbes, BJ. The eye in child abuse: Key points on retinal hemorrhages and abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44 Suppl 4:S571–S577.Google Scholar
Levin, AV. Retinal hemorrhage in abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2010;126(5):961–70.Google Scholar
Maguire, S, Pickerd, N, Farewell, D et al. Which clinical features distinguish inflicted from non-inflicted brain injury? A systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2009;94(11):860–7.Google Scholar
Maguire, SA, Lumb, RC, Kemp, AM et al. A systematic review of the differential diagnosis of retinal haemorrhages in children with clinical features associated with child abuse. Child Abuse Review. 2013;22(1):29–43.Google Scholar
Maguire, SA, Watts, PO, Shaw, AD et al. Retinal haemorrhages and related findings in abusive and non-abusive head trauma: A systematic review. Eye. 2013;27(1):28–36.Google Scholar
Morad, Y, Wygnansky-Jaffe, T, Levin, AV. Retinal haemorrhage in abusive head trauma. Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2010;38(5):514–20.Google Scholar
Parulekar, MV, Elston, JS. The evidence base for retinal haemorrhages in shaken baby syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2008;50(10):793–4.Google Scholar
Pierre-Kahn, V, Roche, O, Dureau, P et al. Ophthalmologic findings in suspected child abuse victims with subdural hematomas. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(9):1718–23.Google Scholar
de Terson, A. L’ hemorrhagie dans le corps vitre au cours de l’hemorrhagie cerebrale. Clinical Ophthalmology. 1900;6:309–12.Google Scholar
Li, LH, Li, N, Zhao, JY et al. Findings of perinatal ocular examination performed on 3573, healthy full-term newborns. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2013;97(5):588–91.Google Scholar
Nemivant, K, Bhalerao, A. Retinal haemorrhages in the newborn. Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences. 2015;4(46):8028–40.Google Scholar
Vinekar, A, Govindaraj, I, Jayadev, C et al. Universal ocular screening of 1021 term infants using wide-field digital imaging in a single public hospital in India: A pilot study. Acta Ophthalmology. 2015;93(5):E372–E6.Google Scholar
Scheller, J. Infantile retinal haemorrhages in the absence of brain and bodily injury. Acta Paediatrica. 2017;106(12):1902–4.Google Scholar
Pu, QL, Li, P, Jiang, HQ et al. Factors related to retinal haemorrhage in infants born at high risk. Acta Ophthalmology. 2017;95(6):E477–E80.Google Scholar
Barnes, PD, Galaznik, J, Gardner, H, Shuman, M. Infant acute life-threatening event: Dysphagic choking versus nonaccidental injury. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology. 2010;17(1):7–11.Google Scholar
Kramer, K, Goldstein, B. Retinal hemorrhages following cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Clinical Pediatrics. 1993;32(6):366–8.Google Scholar
Pham, H, Enzenauer, RW, Elder, JE, Levin, AV. Retinal hemorrhage after cardiopulmonary resuscitation with chest compressions. American Journal of Forensic and Medical Pathology. 2013;34(2):122–4.Google Scholar
Polito, A, Eong, KGA, Repka, MX, Pieramici, DJ. Bilateral retinal hemorrhages in a preterm infant with retinopathy at prematurity immediately following cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Archives of Ophthalmology (Chicago). 2001;119(6):913–14.Google Scholar
Fledelius, HC. Retinal haemorrhages in premature infants: A pathogenetic alternative diagnosis to child abuse. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 2005;83(4):424–7.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Rogers, DL, Forbes, BJ et al. Patterns of retinal hemorrhage associated with increased intracranial pressure in children. Pediatrics. 2013;132(2):e430–e434.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K, Hogberg, G, Hogberg, U. Retinal haemorrhage in infants investigated for suspected maltreatment is strongly correlated with intracranial pathology. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):808–8.Google Scholar
Davies, F, Gupta, R. Apparent life threatening events in infants presenting to an emergency department. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2002;19(1):11–16.Google Scholar
Meert, K, Telford, R, Holubkov, R et al. Exploring the safety and efficacy of targeted temperature management amongst infants with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to apparent life threatening events. Resuscitation. 2016;109:40–8.Google Scholar
Gray, C, Davies, F, Molyneux, E. Apparent life-threatening events presenting to a pediatric emergency department. Pediatric Emergency Care. 1999;15(3):195–9.Google Scholar
Maytal, J, Alvarez, LA, Elkin, CM, Shinnar, S. External hydrocephalus: Radiologic spectrum and differentiation from cerebral atrophy. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1987;148(6):1223–30.Google Scholar
Fernando, S, Obaldo, RE, Walsh, IR, Lowe, LH. Neuroimaging of nonaccidental head trauma: Pitfalls and controversies. Pediatric Radiology. 2008;38(8):827–38.Google Scholar
Ingraham, FD, Matson, DD. Subdural hematoma in infancy. Journal of Pediatrics. 1944;24(1):1–37.Google Scholar
Flom, L, Fromkin, J, Panigrahy, A, Tyler-Kabara, E, Berger, RP. Development of a screening MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46(4):519–26.Google Scholar
Raybaud, C, Greenberg, G. Imaging (normal and abnormal). In Cerebrospinal fluid disorders. Malluci, C, Sgouros, S, eds., 2010, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, chapter 3.Google Scholar

References

Duhaime, AC, Alario, AJ, Lewander, WJ et al. Head injury in very young children: Mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90(2):179–85.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Servaes, S, Slovis, TL et al. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1048–65.Google Scholar
Flom, L, Fromkin, J, Panigrahy, A, Tyler-Kabara, E, Berger, RP. Development of a screening MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46(4):519–26.Google Scholar
Dandy, WE. Treatment of an unusual subdural hydroma (external hydrocephalus). Archives of Surgery (Chicago). 1946;52(4):421–8.Google Scholar
Alvarez, LA, Maytal, J, Shinnar, S. Idiopathic external hydrocephalus: Natural history and relationship to benign familial macrocephaly. Pediatrics. 1986;77(6):901–7.Google Scholar
Maytal, J, Alvarez, LA, Elkin, CM, Shinnar, S. External hydrocephalus: Radiologic spectrum and differentiation from cerebral atrophy. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1987;148(6):1223–30.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M. Subdural hematoma in infants: Can it occur spontaneously? Data from a prospective series and critical review of the literature by Vinchon et al. Reply. Child’s Nervous System. 2010;26(11):1195–1205.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Karger, B, Niederstadt, T, Pfeiffer, H, Hahnemann, ML. Subdural hygromas in abusive head trauma: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and forensic implications. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2015;36(3):432–9.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Benign external hydrocephalus: A review, with emphasis on management. Neurosurgery Review. 2011;34(4):417–32.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Clinical, radiological, and demographic details of benign external hydrocephalus: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;96:53–7.Google Scholar
Wiig, US, Zahl, SM, Egge, A, Helseth, E, Wester, K. Epidemiology of benign external hydrocephalus in Norway: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology. 2017;73:36–41.Google Scholar
McNeely, PD, Atkinson, JD, Saigal, G, O’Gorman, AM, Farmer, JP. Subdural hematomas in infants with benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces are not pathognomonic for child abuse. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2006;27(8):1725–8.Google Scholar
Ment, LR, Duncan, CC, Geehr, R. Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces in the infant. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1981;54(4):504–8.Google Scholar
Korbin, MA. Macrocephaly: Report of case verified by ventriculography and autopsy. Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Society. 1954;19(3):178–85.Google Scholar
Riley, HD, Smith, WR. Macrocephaly, pseudopapilledema and multiple hemangiomata: A previously undescribed heredofamilial syndrome. Pediatrics. 1960;26(2):293–300.Google Scholar
Dickinson, EH, Pastor, BH. 2 cases of acute subdural hygroma simulating massive intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1948;5(1):98–101.Google Scholar
Kumar, R, Singhal, N, Mahapatra, AK. Traumatic subdural effusions in children following minor head injury. Child’s Nervous System. 2008;24(12):1391–6.Google Scholar
Robertson, WC Jr., Chun, RW, Orrison, WW, Sackett, JF. Benign subdural collections of infancy. Journal of Pediatrics. 1979;94(3):382–6.Google Scholar
Mikkelsen, R, Rodevand, LN, Wiig, US, et al. Neurocognitive and psychosocial function in children with benign external hydrocephalus (BEH): A long-term follow-up study. Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(1):91–9.Google Scholar
Muenchberger, H, Assaad, N, Joy, P, Brunsdon, R, Shores, EA. Idiopathic macrocephaly in the infant: Long-term neurological and neuropsychological outcome. Child’s Nervous System. 2006;22(10):1242–8.Google Scholar
Ghosh, PS, Ghosh, D. Subdural hematoma in infants without accidental or nonaccidental injury: Benign external hydrocephalus, a risk factor. Clinical Pediatrics. 2011;50(10):897–903.Google Scholar
Hellbusch, LC. Benign extracerebral fluid collections in infancy: Clinical presentation and long-term follow-up. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2007;107(2 Suppl):119–25.Google Scholar
Laubscher, B, Deonna, T, Uske, A, Van, MG. Primitive megalencephaly in children: Natural history, medium term prognosis with special reference to external hydrocephalus. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1990;149(7):502–7.Google Scholar
Miller, D, Barnes, P, Miller, M. The significance of macrocephaly or enlarging head circumference in infants with the triad: Further evidence of mimics of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2015;36(2):111–20.Google Scholar
Piatt, JH Jr. A pitfall in the diagnosis of child abuse: External hydrocephalus, subdural hematoma, and retinal hemorrhages. Neurosurgery in Focus. 1999;7(4):e4.Google Scholar
Azais, M, Echenne, B. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement (benign external hydrocephalus) in infants. Annales de pediatrie. 1992;39(9):550–8.Google Scholar
Gout, A, Gautier, I, Bellaiche, M et al. Idiopathic subarachnoid space enlargement in infancy: Simple anatomic variant or hemorrhagic risk factor? Archives de pediatrie. 1997;4(10):983–7.Google Scholar
Kapila, A, Trice, J, Spies, WG, Siegel, BA, Gado, MH. Enlarged cerebrospinal fluid spaces in infants with subdural hematomas. Radiology. 1982;142(3):669–72.Google Scholar
McKeag, H, Christian, CW, Rubin, D et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces: Clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatric. 2013;11(4):438–44.Google Scholar
Mori, K, Sakamoto, T, Nishimura, K, Fujiwara, K. Subarachnoid fluid collection in infants complicated by subdural hematoma. Child’s Nervous System. 1993;9(5):282–4.Google Scholar
Papasian, NC, Frim, DM. A theoretical model of benign external hydrocephalus that predicts a predisposition towards extra-axial hemorrhage after minor head trauma. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2000;33(4):188–93.Google Scholar
Pittman, T. Significance of a subdural hematoma in a child with external hydrocephalus. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2003;39(2):57–9.Google Scholar
Ravid, S, Maytal, J. External hydrocephalus: A probable cause for subdural hematoma in infancy. Pediatric Neurology. 2003;28(2):139–41.Google Scholar
Caldarelli, M, Di Rocco, C, Romani, R. Surgical treatment of chronic subdural hygromas in infants and children. Acta Neurochirurgica. 2002;144(6):581–8.Google Scholar
Kumar, R. External hydrocephalus in small children. Child’s Nervous System. 2006;22(10):1237–41.Google Scholar
Alper, G, Ekinci, G, Yilmaz, Y et al. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of benign macrocephaly in children. Journal of Child Neurology. 1999;14(10):678–82.Google Scholar
Barlow, CF. CSF dynamics in hydrocephalus: With special attention to external hydrocephalus. Brain Development. 1984;6(2):119–27.Google Scholar
Carolan, PL, Mclaurin, RL, Towbin, RB, Towbin, JA, Egelhoff, JC. Benign extraaxial collections of infancy. Pediatric Neuroscience. 1986;12(3):140–4.Google Scholar
Castro-Gago, M, Perez-Gomez, C, Novo-Rodriguez, MI et al. [Benign idiopathic external hydrocephalus (benign subdural collection) in 39 children: Its natural history and relation to familial macrocephaly]. Review of Neurology. 2005;40(9):513–17.Google Scholar
Gherpelli, JL, Scaramuzzi, V, Manreza, ML, Diament, AJ. Follow-up study of macrocephalic children with enlargement of the subarachnoid space. Arquivos neuropsiquiatria. 1992;50(2):156–62.Google Scholar
Medina, LS, Frawley, K, Zurakowski, D et al. Children with macrocrania: Clinical and imaging predictors of disorders requiring surgery. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2001;22(3):564–70.Google Scholar
Prassopoulos, P, Cavouras, D, Golfinopoulos, S, Nezi, M. The size of the intraventricular and extraventricular cerebrospinal fluid compartments in children with idiopathic benign widening of the frontal subarachnoid space. Neuroradiology. 1995;37(5):418–21.Google Scholar
Robertson, WC Jr, Gomez, MR. External hydrocephalus: Early finding in congenital communicating hydrocephalus. Archives of Neurology. 1978;35(8):541–4.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Grabar, S, Mejean, N, Rey-Salmon, C. Abusive head trauma: Judicial admissions highlight violent and repetitive shaking. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):546–55.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Mejean, N, Merzoug, V, Rey-Salmon, C. How to explore and report children with suspected non-accidental trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2010;40(6):932–8.Google Scholar
Adamsbaum, C, Morel, B, Ducot, B, Antoni, G, Rey-Salmon, C. Dating the abusive head trauma episode and perpetrator statements: Key points for imaging. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44:578–88.Google Scholar
Ashwal, S, Wycliffe, ND, Holshouser, BA. Advanced neuroimaging in children with nonaccidental trauma. Developments in Neuroscience (Basel). 2010;32(5–6):343–60.Google Scholar
Barnes, PD. Imaging of nonaccidental injury and the mimics: Issues and controversies in the era of evidence-based medicine. Radiologic Clinics of North America. 2011;49(1):205–29.Google Scholar
Beez, T, Schmitz, AK, Steiger, HJ, Munoz-Bendix, C. Endoscopic lavage of extensive chronic subdural hematoma in an infant after abusive head trauma: Adaptation of a technique from ventricular neuroendoscopy. Cureus. 2018;10(3):1–6. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.2258.Google Scholar
Berger, RP, Furtado, AD, Flom, LL, Fromkin, JB, Panigrahy, A. Implementation of a brain injury screen MRI for infants at risk for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2020;50(1):75–82.Google Scholar
Binenbaum, G, Christian, CW, Ichord, RN et al. Retinal hemorrhage and brain injury patterns on diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in children with head trauma. Journal of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology. 2013;17(6):603–8.Google Scholar
Blumfield, E. Pearls and pitfalls in imaging of abusive head trauma. Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI. 2020;41(5):411–20.Google Scholar
Boehnke, M, Mirsky, D, Stence, N et al. Occult head injury is common in children with concern for physical abuse. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1123–9.Google Scholar
Caylan, ND, Yilmaz, G, Oral, R, Karacan, CD, Zorlu, P. Abusive head trauma: Report of 3 cases. Turkish Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery. 2013;19(3):261–6.Google Scholar
Elliott, CA, Ramaswamy, V, Jacob, FD, Sankar, T, Mehta, V. Early diffusion restriction of white matter in infants with small subdural hematomas is associated with delayed atrophy. Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(2):289–95.Google Scholar
Erfurt, C, Hahn, G, Roesner, D, Schmidt, U. Pediatric radiological diagnostic procedures in cases of suspected child abuse. Forensic Science and Medical Pathology. 2011;7(1):65–74.Google Scholar
Feldman, KW, Sugar, NF, Browd, SR. Initial clinical presentation of children with acute and chronic versus acute subdural hemorrhage resulting from abusive head trauma. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatric. 2015;16(2):177–85.Google Scholar
Fernando, S, Obaldo, RE, Walsh, IR, Lowe, LH. Neuroimaging of nonaccidental head trauma: Pitfalls and controversies. Pediatric Radiology. 2008;38(8):827–38.Google Scholar
Foerster, BR, Petrou, M, Lin, D, et al. Neuroimaging evaluation of non-accidental head trauma with correlation to clinical outcomes: A review of 57 cases. Journal of Pediatrics. 2009;154(4):573–7.Google Scholar
Cartocci, G, Fineschi, V, Padovano, M et al. Shaken baby syndrome: Magnetic resonance imaging features in abusive head trauma. Brain Science. 2021;11(2):1–16.Google Scholar
Gencturk, M, Tore, HG, Nascene, DR et al. Various cranial and orbital imaging findings in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma, and relation to outcomes. Clinical Neuroradiology. 2019;29(2):253–61.Google Scholar
Girard, N, Brunel, H, Dory-Lautrec, P, Chabrol, B. Neuroimaging differential diagnoses to abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46(5):603–14.Google Scholar
Greiner, MV, Richards, TJ, Care, MM, Leach, JL. Prevalence of subdural collections in children with macrocrania. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2013;34(12):2373–8.Google Scholar
Gunda, D, Cornwell, BO, Dahmoush, HM, Jazbeh, S, Alleman, AM. Pediatric central nervous system imaging of nonaccidental trauma: Beyond subdural hematomas. Radiographics. 2019;39(1):213–28.Google Scholar
Haas-Lude, K, Roulet-Perez, E, Dobler-Neumann, M et al. Cerebellar lesions in pediatric abusive head trauma. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2019;23(4):604–8.Google Scholar
Hahnemann, ML, Kinner, S, Schweiger, B et al. Imaging of bridging vein thrombosis in infants with abusive head trauma: The ‘tadpole sign’. European Radiology. 2015;25(2):299–305.Google Scholar
Hedlund, GL, Frasier, LD. Neuroimaging of abusive head trauma. Forensic Science and Medical Pathology. 2009;5(4):280–90.Google Scholar
Hsieh, KLC, Zimmerman, RA, Kao, HW, Chen, CY. Revisiting neuroimaging of abusive head trauma in infants and young children. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2015;204(5):944–52.Google Scholar
Hung, KL. Pediatric abusive head trauma. Biomedical Journal. 2020;43(3):240–50.Google Scholar
Kadom, N, Khademian, Z, Vezina, G et al. Usefulness of MRI detection of cervical spine and brain injuries in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44(7):839–48.Google Scholar
Knox, B, Rorke-Adams, LB, Luyet, FM. Subdural hematoma rebleeding in relation to abusive head trauma. Journal of Family Violence. 2016;31(7):815–21.Google Scholar
Kralik, SF, Finke, W, Wu, IC et al. Radiologic head CT interpretation errors in pediatric abusive and non-abusive head trauma patients. Pediatric Radiology. 2017;47(8):942–51.Google Scholar
Kralik, SF, Yasrebi, M, Supakul, N et al. Diagnostic performance of ultrafast brain MRI for evaluation of abusive head trauma. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2017;38(4):807–13.Google Scholar
Langford, S, Panigrahy, A, Narayanan, S et al. Multiplanar reconstructed CT images increased depiction of intracranial hemorrhages in pediatric head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2015;57(12):1263–8.Google Scholar
Matschke, J, Voss, J, Obi, N et al. Nonaccidental head injury is the most common cause of subdural bleeding in infants < 1 year of age. Pediatrics. 2009;124(6):1587–94.Google Scholar
Nishimoto, H. Recent progress and future issues in the management of abusive head trauma. Neurologia Medico-chirurgica. 2015;55(4):296–304.Google Scholar
Oates, AJ, Sidpra, J, Mankad, K. Parenchymal brain injuries in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2021;51(6):898–910.Google Scholar
O’Brien, WT, Care, MM, Leach, JL. Pediatric emergencies: Imaging of pediatric head trauma. Seminars in Ultrasound, CT and MRI. 2018;39(5):495–514.Google Scholar
Orman, G, Kralik, SF, Meoded, A et al. MRI findings in pediatric abusive head trauma: A review. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2020;30(1):15–27.Google Scholar
Orru, E, Calloni, SF, Tekes, A, Huisman, TAGM, Soares, BP. The child with macrocephaly: Differential diagnosis and neuroimaging findings. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2018;210(4):848–59.Google Scholar
Orru’, E, Huisman, TAGM, Izbudak, I. Prevalence, patterns, and clinical relevance of hypoxic-ischemic injuries in children exposed to abusive head trauma. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2018;28(6):608–14.Google Scholar
Palmer, AW, Albert, GW. Minicraniotomy with a subgaleal pocket for the treatment of subdural fluid collections in infants. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2019;23(4):480–5.Google Scholar
Pfeifer, CM, Hammer, MR, Mangona, KL, Booth, TN. Non-accidental trauma: The role of radiology. Emergency Radiology. 2017;24(2):207–13.Google Scholar
Porto, L, Bartels, MB, Zwaschka, J et al. Abusive head trauma: Experience improves diagnosis. Neuroradiology. 2020;63(3):417–30.Google Scholar
Rajaram, S, Batty, R, Rittey, CDC, Griffiths, PD, Connolly, DJA. Neuroimaging in non-accidental head injury in children: An important element of assessment. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2011;87(1027):355–61.Google Scholar
Reith, W, Yilmaz, U, Kraus, C. Shaken baby syndrome. Radiologe. 2016;56(5):424–31.Google Scholar
Rolfes, MC, Guerin, JB, Brucker, J, Kalina, P. Pediatric abusive head trauma: Review of standard imaging evaluation and typical findings. Journal of Pediatric Neurology. 2018;16(2):39–55.Google Scholar
Ronning, MM, Carolan, PL, Cutler, GJ, Patterson, RJ. Parasagittal vertex clots on head CT in infants with subdural hemorrhage as a predictor for abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(13):1915–23.Google Scholar
Saigal, G, Ezuddin, NS, de la Vega, G. Neurologic emergencies in pediatric patients including accidental and nonaccidental trauma. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America. 2018;28(3):453–70.Google Scholar
Shekdar, K. Imaging of abusive trauma. Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 2016;83(6):578–88.Google Scholar
Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn, T, Boos, S, Spivack, B, Bilo, RAC, Van Rijn, RR. Educational paper. Abusive head trauma part II: Radiological aspects. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2012;171(4):617–23.Google Scholar
Stöver, B. Bildgebende Diagnostik der Kindesmisshandlung. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkde. 2008;156:385–98.Google Scholar
Takeda, R, Kobayashi, S, Kamioka, N et al. Post-traumatic stress syndrome due to abusive head trauma in two infants with different brain imaging findings. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2020;250(3):167–71.Google Scholar
Tysiak, EWN, Petersen, D, Gottschalk, S et al. Progression of chronic subdural haematomas in an infant boy after abusive head trauma. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2012;16(6):736–9.Google Scholar
Van Rijn, RR, Spevak, MR. Imaging of neonatal child abuse with an emphasis on abusive head trauma. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America. 2011;19(4):791–812, viii.Google Scholar
Vazquez, E, Delgado, I, Sanchez-Montanez, A et al. Imaging abusive head trauma: Why use both computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging? Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44:589–603.Google Scholar
Vezina, G. Assessment of the nature and age of subdural collections in nonaccidental head injury with CT and MRI. Pediatric Radiology. 2009;39(6):586–90.Google Scholar
Vilanilam, GK, Jayappa, S, Desai, S et al. Venous injury in pediatric abusive head trauma: A pictorial review. Pediatric Radiology. 2021;51(6):918–26.Google Scholar
Vinchon, M. Shaken baby syndrome: What certainty do we have? Child’s Nervous System. 2017;33(10):1727–33.Google Scholar
Yilmaz, U, Korner, H, Meyer, S, Reith, W. Multifocal signal loss at bridging veins on susceptibility-weighted imaging in abusive head trauma. Clinical Neuroradiology. 2015;25(2):181–5.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Karger, B, Pfeiffer, H, Hahnemann, ML. Understanding subdural collections in pediatric abusive head trauma. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2019;40(3):388–95.Google Scholar
Wittschieber, D, Muggenthaler, H, Mall, G, Mentzel, HJ. [Bridging vein injuries in shaken baby syndrome: Forensic-radiological meta-analysis with special focus on the tadpole sign]. Radiologe. 2021;61(1):71–9.Google Scholar
Wright, JN, Feyma, TJ, Ishak, GE et al. Subdural hemorrhage rebleeding in abused children: Frequency, associations and clinical presentation. Pediatric Radiology. 2019;49(13):1762–72.Google Scholar
Mori, K, Yamamoto, T, Horinaka, N, Maeda, M. Arachnoid cyst is a risk factor for chronic subdural hematoma in juveniles: Twelve cases of chronic subdural hematoma associated with arachnoid cyst. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2002;19(9):1017–27.Google Scholar
Tucker, J, Choudhary, AK, Piatt, J. Macrocephaly in infancy: Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces and subdural collections. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2016;18(1):16–20.Google Scholar
Lee, HC, Chong, S, Lee, JY et al. Benign extracerebral fluid collection complicated by subdural hematoma and fluid collection: Clinical characteristics and management. Child’s Nervous System. 2018;34(2):235–45.Google Scholar
Wester, K. Two infant boys misdiagnosed as ‘shaken baby’ and their twin sisters: A cautionary tale. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;97:3–11.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Wikström, J, Lynøe, N, Eriksson, A. Unsubstantiated belief in the diagnostic accuracy of the triad of abusive head trauma may lead to incorrect diagnoses of alleged abuse cases. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):809–11.Google Scholar
Miller, R, Miller, M. Overrepresentation of males in traumatic brain injury of infancy and in infants with macrocephaly: Further evidence that questions the existence of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2010;31(2):165–73.Google Scholar
Piatt, JH. Monozygotic twins discordant for external hydrocephalus. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2001;35(4):211–15.Google Scholar
Wester, K, Stridbeck, U, Syse, A, Wikstrom, J. Re-evaluation of medical findings in alleged shaken baby syndrome and abusive head trauma in Norwegian courts fails to support abuse diagnoses. Acta Paediatrica. 2021;111(4):779–92.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Bradford, R, Dias, MS, Thamburaj, K, Boal, DKB. Venous injury in abusive head trauma. Pediatric Radiology. 2015;45(12):1803–13.Google Scholar
Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn, T, Boos, S, Spivack, B, Bilo, RAC, Van Rijn, RR. Educational paper. Abusive head trauma part I: Clinical aspects. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2012;171(3):415–23.Google Scholar

References

Willinger, M, James, LS, Catz, C. Defining the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): Deliberations of an expert panel convened by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Pediatric Pathology. 1991;11(5):677–84.Google Scholar
Filiano, JJ, Kinney, HC. A perspective on neuropathologic findings in victims of the sudden infant death syndrome: The triple-risk model. Biology of the Neonate. 1994;65:194–7.Google Scholar
Kahn, A, Sawaguchib, T, Sawaguchib, A et al. Sudden infant deaths: From epidemiology to physiology. Forensic Science International. 2002;130S:S8–S20.Google Scholar
Byard, RW, Krous, HF. Sudden infant death syndrome: Overview and update. Pediatric Developmental Pathology. 2003;6:112–27.Google Scholar
Shapiro-Mendoza, CK, Parks, S, Lambert, AE et al. The epidemiology of sudden infant death syndrome and sudden unexpected infant deaths: Diagnostic shift and other temporal changes. In SIDS sudden infant and early childhood death: The past, the present and the future. Duncan, JR, Byard, RW, eds. University of Adelaide Press, 2018, chapter 13. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513373.Google Scholar
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Report of the Chief Medical Officer’s Expert Group on the Sleeping Position of Infants and Cot Death. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1993Google Scholar
www.cdc.gov/sids/data.htm.Google Scholar
Shapiro-Mendoza, CK, Tomashek, KM, Anderson, RN, Wingo, J. Recent national trends in sudden, unexpected infant deaths: More evidence supporting a change in classification or reporting. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2006;163(8):762–9.Google Scholar
Mehanni, M, Cullen, A, Kiberd, B et al. The current epidemiology of SIDS in Ireland. Irish Medical Journal. 2000;93(9):264–8.Google Scholar
Heron, M. Deaths: Leading causes for 2014. National vital statistics reports from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System. National Vital Statistics Reports. 2016;65(5):1–96.Google Scholar
Machaalani, R, Waters, KA. Neuronal cell death in the sudden infant death syndrome brainstem and associations with risk factors. Brain. 2008;131(Pt 1):218–28.Google Scholar
Stonebridge, R, Taliano, RJ, Velilla, TD, Anthony, DC. Hypertrophy of the anterior external arcuate fasciculus: A rare variant with implications for the development of the arcuate nucleus. Front Neuroanatomy. 2020;14:595500.Google Scholar
Matthews, TJ, MacDorman, MF, Thoma, ME. Infant mortality statistics from the 2013 period linked birth/infant death data set. National Vital Statistics Report. 2015;64(9):1–30.Google Scholar
Malloy, MH. Prematurity and sudden infant death syndrome: United States 2005–2007. Journal of Perinatology. 2013;33(6):470–5.Google Scholar
Sanghavi, DM. Epidemiology of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) for Kentucky infants born in 1990: Maternal, prenatal, and perinatal risk factors. Journal of the Kentucky Medical Association. 1995;93(7):286–90.Google Scholar
Spencer, N, Logan, S. Sudden unexpected death in infancy and socioeconomic status: A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2004;58(5):366–73.Google Scholar
www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/children-families.Google Scholar
Haider, S. J. Racial and ethnic infant mortality gaps and socioeconomic status. Focus. 2014;31:18–20.Google Scholar
Elder, TE, Goddeeris, JH, Haider, SJ. Racial and ethnic infant mortality gaps and the role of socio-economic status. Labour Economics. 2016;43:42–54.Google Scholar
Prtak, L, Al-Adnani, M, Fenton, P et al. Contribution of bacteriology and virology in sudden unexpected death in infancy. Archive of Diseases in Childhood. 2010;95(5):371–6.Google Scholar
Krous, HF, Haas, EA, Chadwick, AE et al. Delayed death in sudden infant death syndrome: A San Diego SIDS/SUDC Research Project 15-year population-based report. Forensic Science International. 2008;176(2–3):209–16.Google Scholar
Krous, HF, Chadwick, AE, Haas, E et al. Sudden infant death while awake. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology. 2008;4(1):40–6.Google Scholar
Kahn, A, Blum, D, Hennart, P et al. A critical comparison of the history of sudden-death infants and infants hospitalised for near-miss for SIDS. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1984;143(2):103–7.Google Scholar
Page, M, Jeffrey, H. The role of gastro-oesophageal reflux in the aetiology of SIDS. Early Human Development. 2000;59:127–49.Google Scholar
Thach, BT. Sudden infant death syndrome: Can gastroesophageal reflux cause sudden infant death? American Journal of Medicine. 2000;108:S144–S148.Google Scholar
Krous, HF, Masoumi, H, Haas, EA et al. Aspiration of gastric contents in sudden infant death syndrome without cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Journal of Pediatrics. 2007;150:241–6.Google Scholar
Alex, N, Thompson, JMD, Becroft, DMO, Mitchell, EA. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents and the sudden infant death syndrome. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2005;41:428–31.Google Scholar
Al-Adnani, M, Cohen, MC, Scheimberg, I. Gastroesophageal reflux disease and sudden infant death: Mechanisms behind an under-recognized association. Pediatric Development and Pathology. 2011;14(1):53–6.Google Scholar
Davies, F, Gupta, R. Apparent life threatening events in infants presenting to an emergency department. Emergency Medicine Journal. 2002;19:11–16.Google Scholar
https://bit.ly/3V83gdp.Google Scholar
https://mayocl.in/3SW5zhM.Google Scholar
Elinder, G, Eriksson, A, Hallberg, B et al. Traumatic shaking: The role of the triad in medical investigations of suspected traumatic shaking. Acta Paediatrica. 2018;107:3–23.Google Scholar
https://bit.ly/3fIYdQJ.Google Scholar
Hobbs, C, Childs, AM, Wynne, J et al. Subdural haematoma and effusion in infancy: An epidemiological study. Archive of Diseases in Childhood. 2005;90(9):952–5.Google Scholar
Högberg, U, Andersson, J, Squier, W et al. Epidemiology of subdural haemorrhage during infancy: A population-based register study. PLoS One. 2018;13(10):e0206340.Google Scholar
Squier, W, Mack, J, Jansen, AC. Infants dying suddenly and unexpectedly share demographic features with infants who die with retinal and dural bleeding: A review of neural mechanisms. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2016;58(12):1223–34.Google Scholar
Duhaime, AC, Christian, CW, Rorke, LB, Zimmerman, RA. Nonaccidental head injury in infants: The ‘shaken baby syndrome’. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998;338:1822–9.Google Scholar
Gerber, P, Coffman, K. Nonaccidental head trauma in infants. Child’s Nervous System 2007;23:499–507.Google Scholar
Keenan, HT, Runyan, DK, Marshall, SW et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003;290:621–6.Google Scholar
Oehmichen, M, Schleiss, D, Pedal, I et al. Shaken baby syndrome: Re-examination of diffuse axonal injury as cause of death. Acta Neuropathologica. 2008;116:317–29.Google Scholar
Blair, PS, Sidebotham, P, Evason-Coombe, C et al. Hazardous cosleeping environments and risk factors amenable to change: Case-control study of SIDS in south west England. BMJ.2009;13(339):b3666.Google Scholar
Mage, D, Donner, E, Vennemann, M et al. All sudden unexplained infant respiratory deaths may result from the same underlying mechanism. Scandinavian Journal of Forensic Science. 2012;18(1):1–9.Google Scholar
Moon, RY, Horne, RSC, Hauck, FR. Sudden infant death syndrome. Lancet. 2007;370:1578–87.Google Scholar
Kato, I, Franco, P, Groswasser, J et al. Incomplete arousal processes in infants who were victims of sudden death. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2003;168:1298–1303.Google Scholar
Benarroch, EE. Brainstem respiratory chemosensitivity. New insights and clinical implications. Neurology. 2007:2140–3.Google Scholar
Leiter, JC, Böhm, I. Mechanisms of pathogenesis in the sudden infant death syndrome. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology. 2007;159:127–38.Google Scholar
Naeye, RL. Sudden death in infants. In Potter’s pathology of the fetus, infant and child, vol. 1. Gilbert-Barness, E, ed. Elsevier, 2007, pp. 857–69.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Yong, CY, Evans, C et al. Release of erythroblasts to the peripheral blood suggests higher exposure to hypoxia in cases of SIDS with co-sleeping compared to SIDS non-co-sleeping. Forensic Science International. 2010;197(1–3):54–8.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Sprigg, A, Whitby, EH. Subdural hemorrhage, intradural hemorrhage and hypoxia in the pediatric and perinatal post mortem: Are they related? An observational study combining the use of post mortem pathology and magnetic resonance imaging. Forensic Science International. 2010;200(1–3):100–7.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Scheimberg, I. Evidence of occurrence of intradural and subdural hemorrhage in the perinatal and neonatal period in the context of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. An observational study from two referral institutions in the United Kingdom. Pediatric Development Pathology. 2009;12:169–76.Google Scholar
Scheimberg, I, Cohen, MC, Zapata Vazquez, RE et al. Nontraumatic intradural and subdural hemorrhage and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy in fetuses, infants, and children up to three years of age: Analysis of two audits of 636 cases from two referral centers in the United Kingdom. Pediatric Developmental Pathology. 2013;16(3):149–59.Google Scholar

References

Ami, O Maran, JC, Gabor, P et al. Three dimensional magnetic resonance imaging of fetal head molding and brain shape during the second stage of labor. PLoS One. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215721.Google Scholar
Azais, M, Echenne, B. Epanchements péricérébraux idiopathiques (hydrocéphalie externe) du nourrisson. Annales de Pédiatrie. 1992;39:550–8.Google Scholar
Browder, J, Kaplan, HA, Krieger, AJ. Veinous lakes in the suboccipital dura matter and falx cerebelli in infants: Surgical significance. Surgical Neurology. 1975;4:53–5.Google Scholar
Callaway, NF, Ludwig, CA, Blumenkranz, MS et al. Retinal and optic nerve hemorrhages in the newborn infant. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(5):1043–52.Google Scholar
Canedo Antelo, M, Baleato-González, S, Mosqueira, AJ et al. Radiologic clues to cerebral venous thrombosis. RadioGraphics. 2019;39:1611–28.Google Scholar
Chen, W, Yang, C, Chen, H, Zhang, B. Risk factor analysis and prevention of metabolic bone disease of prematurity. Medicine. 2018;97:e12861.Google Scholar
Cheshire, EC, Malcomson, RDG, Joseph, S et al. Post-mortem imaging of the infant and perinatal dura matter and superior sagittal sinus using optical coherence tomography. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 2017;131:1377–83.Google Scholar
Cheshire, EC, Malcomson, RDG, Sun, P et al. A systematic autopsy survey of human infant bridging veins. International Journal of Legal Medicine. 2018;132:449–61.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Scheimberg, I. Histology of the dural membrane supports the theoretical considerations of its role in the pathophysiology of subdural collections in non-traumatic circumstances. Pediatric Radiology. 2009;39:880–1.Google Scholar
Cohen, MC, Scheimberg, I, Beckwith, J, Hauck, F (eds.). Investigation of sudden infant death syndrome. Cambridge University Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108186001.Google Scholar
Cole, WG, Lam, TP Arachnoid cyst and chronic subdural hematoma in a child with osteogenesis imperfecta type III resulting from the substitution of glycine 1006 by alanine in the pro alpha 2 chain of type I procollagen. Journal of Medical Genetics. 1996;33:193–6.Google Scholar
Diaz-Olavarrieta, C, García-Piña, CA, Loredo-Abdala, A et al. AHT at a tertiary care children’s hospital in Mexico City: A preliminary study. Child Abuse and Neglect. 2011;35:915–23.Google Scholar
Echenne, B. Expansion de l’espace sous-arachnoidien: du physiologique au pathologique. In Le syndrome du bébé secoué. Echenne, B, Couture, A, Sebire, G, eds. Sauramps, 2020, pp. 25–47.Google Scholar
Echenne, B. Notions de terrain et de facteur inhérents à l’enfant lui-même. In Le syndrome du bébé secoué. Echenne, B, Couture, A, Sébire, G, eds. Sauramps, 2020, pp. 219–38.Google Scholar
Figueras-Aloy, J, Álvarez-Domínguez, E, Pérez-Fernández, JM et al. Metabolic bone disease and bone mineral density in very preterm infants. Journal of Pediatrics. 2014;164:499–504.Google Scholar
Galaznik, JG. A case for an utero etiology of chronic SDH/effusions of infancy. Journal of Perinatology. 2011;31:320–2.Google Scholar
Galaznik, JG. Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis is a valid mimic of AHT. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1357–e1373.Google Scholar
Ganesh, A, Jenny, C, Geyer, J, Shouldice, M, Levin, AV. Retinal hemorrhages in type I osteogenesis imperfecta after minor trauma. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:1428–31.Google Scholar
Garrido Barbero, M, Arnaez, J, Loureiro, B et al. The role of factor Leiden, prothrombin G20210A, and MTHFR C677 T mutations in neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis. 2019;25:1–6.Google Scholar
Gooding, CA, Price, DC, Newton, TH. Experimental studies of falx and tentorial opacification during cerebral angiography. Radiology. 1972;103:77–82.Google Scholar
Groninger, A, Schaper, J, Messing-Juenger, M, Mayatepek, E, Rosenbaum, T. Subdural hematoma as clinical presentation of osteogenesis imperfecta. Pediatric Neurology. 2005;32:140–2.Google Scholar
Hedlund, GL. Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in pediatric practice. Pediatric Radiology. 2013;43:173–88.Google Scholar
Högberg, U, Andersson, J, Squier, W et al. Epidemiology of subdural haemorrhage during infancy: A population-based register study. PLoS One. 2018;13(10):e0206340.Google Scholar
Hughes, LA, May, K, Talbot, JF, Parsons, MA. Incidence, distribution, and duration of birth-related hemorrhages: A prospective study. Journal of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology. 2006;10:102–6.Google Scholar
Iqbal O’Meara, AM, Sequeira, J, Ferguson, NM. Advances and future directions of diagnosis and management of pediatric abusive head trauma: A revue of literature. Frontiers in Neurology. 2020;11:1–12.Google Scholar
Kaplan, HA, Browder, J, Krieger, AJ. Venous channels within the intracranial dural partitions. Radiology. 1975;115:641–5.Google Scholar
Kemp, AM, Jaspan, T, Griffiths, J et al. Neuroimaging: What neuroradiological features distinguish abusive from non-abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2011;96:1103–12.Google Scholar
Krous, HF, Haas, EA, Chadwick, A et al. Delayed death in sudden infant death syndrome: A San Diego SIDS/SUDC research project 15-year population-based report. Forensic Science International. 2008;176:209–16.Google Scholar
Kumpulainen, V, Lehtola, SJ, Tuulari, JJ et al. Prevalence and risk factors of incidental findings in brain MRIs of healthy neonates: The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. Frontiers in Neurology. 2019;10:1347. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01347.Google Scholar
Laurent Vannier, A, Bernard, JY, Chevignard, M. High frequency of previous abuse and missed diagnoses prior to abusive head trauma: A consecutive case series of 100 forensic examinations. Child Abuse Review. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2638.Google Scholar
Looney, CB, Smith, JK, Merck, LH et al. Intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic neonates: Prevalence on MR images and relationship to obstetric and neonatal risk factors. Radiology. 2007;242:535–41.Google Scholar
Mäkitie, RE, Constantini, A, Kämpe, A, Alm, J, Mäkitie, O. New insights into monogenic causes of osteoporosis. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2019;10:1–15.Google Scholar
Miller Ferguson, M, Sarnaik, A, Miles, D et al. AHT and mortality: An analysis from an international comparative effectiveness study of children with severe traumatic brain injury. Critical Care Medicine. 2017;45:1398–1407.Google Scholar
Mitchell, SM, Rogers, SP, Hicks, PD et al. High frequency of elevated alkaline phosphatise activity and rickets exist in extremely low birth weight infants despite current nutritional support. BMC Pediatrics. 2009;9:47.Google Scholar
Ortiz Remacha, PP, Candia, J, Conde, M. Recurrent subdural hemorrhages: The form of presentation of a type IV Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. Revista Clínica Española. 2000;200:181–2.Google Scholar
Paterson, CR, Paterson, EC. Maternal vitamin deficiencies causing bone disorders and fractures in infants. Medical Research Archives. 2019;10:1–13.Google Scholar
Poon, CS, Chang, JK, Swarnkar, A, Johnson, MH, Wasenko, J. Radiologic diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis: Pictorial review. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2007;189(6 suppl):s64–s75.Google Scholar
Raybaud, C. Normal and abnormal embryology and development of the intracranial vascular system. Neurosurgical Clinics of North America. 2010;21:399–426.Google Scholar
Rooks, VJ, Eaton, JP, Ruess, L et al. Prevalence and evolution of intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic term infants. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008;29:1082–9.Google Scholar
Sasaki-Adams, D, Kulkarni, A, Rutka, J et al. Neurosurgical implications of osteogenesis imperfecta in children: Report of 4 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2008;1:229–36.Google Scholar
Saposnik, G, Barinagarrementeria, F, Brown, RD et al. Diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis. Stroke. 2011;42:1158–92.Google Scholar
Singh Kocher, M, Dichtel, L. Osteogenesis imperfecta misdiagnosed as child abuse. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics B. 2011;20:440–3.Google Scholar
Sirgiovanni, I, Avignone, S, Groppo, M et al. Intracranial hemorrhage: An incidental finding at magnetic resonance imaging in a cohort of late preterm and term infants. Pediatric Radiology. 2014;44:289–96.Google Scholar
Sturtz, F, Echenne, B. Les notions de terrain et de facteur favorisants: Maladies génétiques. In Le syndrome du bébé secoué. Echenne, B, Couture, A, Sebire, G, eds. Sauramps, 2020, pp. 241–55.Google Scholar
Tosun, A, Kurtgoz, S, Dursun, S, Bozkurt, G. A case of Ehlers–Danlos syndrome type VI A with novel PLOD1 gene mutation. Pediatric Neurology. 2014;51:566–9.Google Scholar
Tokoro, K, Nakajima, F, Yamataki, A et al. Infantile chronic subdural hematoma with local protrusion of the skull in a case of osteogenesis imperfecta. Neurosurgery. 1988;22:595–8.Google Scholar
Tucker, J, Choudhary, AK, Piatt, J. Macrocephaly in infancy: Benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces and subdural collections. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2016;18:16–20.Google Scholar
Wester, K. Two infants boys misdiagnosed as ‘shaken baby’ and their twin sister: A cautionary tale. Pediatric Neurology. 2019;97:3–11.Google Scholar
Whitby, EH, Griffiths, PD, Rutter, S et al. Frequency and natural history of subdural haemorrhages in babies and relation to obstetric factors. Lancet. 2004;363:846–51.Google Scholar
Whitehead, MT, Lee, B, McCarron, A, et al. Reduced subarachnoid fluid diffusion in enlarged subarachnoid spaces of infancy. Neuroradiology. 2017;30:418–24.Google Scholar
Wittscheiber, D, Karger, B, Pfeiffer, H, et al. Understanding subdural collections in paediatric abusive head trauma. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2019;40:388–95.Google Scholar
Zahl, SM, Wester, K, Gabaeff, S. Examining perinatal subdural haematoma as an aetiology of extra-axial hygroma and chronic subdural haematoma. Acta Paediatrica. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/APA.15072.Google Scholar
McLean, LA, Frasier, LD, Hedlund, GL. Does intracranial venous thrombosis cause subdural hemorrhage in the pediatric population? American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2012;33(7):1281–4.Google Scholar

References

Richards, PG, Bertocci, GE, Bonshek, RE et al. Shaken baby syndrome. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2006;91(3):205–6.Google Scholar
Guthkelch, AN. Infantile subdural haematoma and its relationship to whiplash injuries. British Medical Journal. 1971;2(5759):430–1.Google Scholar
Caffey, J. On the theory and practice of shaking infants: Its potential residual effects of permanent brain damage and mental retardation. American Journal of Diseases of Children. 1972;124(2):161–9.Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics. Shaken baby syndrome: Rotational cranial injuries. Technical report. Pediatrics. 2001;108(1):206–10.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF, Hackshaw, AK, Vowles, GH, Nickols, CD, Whitwell, HL. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. I. Patterns of brain damage. Brain. 2001;124 :1290–8.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF, Vowles, GH, Hackshaw, AK et al. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. II. Microscopic brain injury in infants. Brain. 2001;124:1299–1306.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF, Tasker, RC, Hackshaw, AK et al. Dural haemorrhage in non-traumatic infant deaths: Does it explain the bleeding in ‘shaken baby syndrome?’ Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 2003;29 :14–22.Google Scholar
Scheimberg, I, Cohen, MC, Zapata Vazquez, RE et al. Non-traumatic intradural and subdural haemorrhage and hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy in fetuses, infants and children up to 3 years of age. Analysis of two audits of 636 cases from two referral centers in the United Kingdom. Pediatric Development Pathology. 2013;16:149–59.Google Scholar
Ommaya, A, Fass, F, Yarnell, P. Whiplash injury and brain damage. JAMA. 1968;204:75–9.Google Scholar
Löwenhielm, P. Strain tolerance of the Vv. Cerebri Sup. (bridging veins) calculated from head-on collision tests with cadavers.Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin. 1974;75(2):131–44.Google Scholar
Depreitere, B, Van Lierde, C, Vander Sloten, J et al. Mechanics of acute subdural hematomas resulting from bridging vein rupture. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2006;104(6):950–6.Google Scholar
Duhaime, AC, Gennarelli, TA, Thibault, LE et al. The shaken baby syndrome: A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1987;66(3):409–15.Google Scholar
Prange, MT, Coats, B, Duhaime, AC, Margulies, SS. Anthropomorphic simulations of falls, shakes, and inflicted impacts in infants. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2003;99(1):143–50.Google Scholar
Lloyd, J, Willey, EN, Galaznik, JG, Lee III, WE, Luttner, SE. Biomechanical evaluation of head kinematics during infant shaking versus pediatric activities of daily living. Journal of Forensic Biomechanics. 2011;2(2):1–9.Google Scholar
Plunkett, J. Fatal pediatric head injuries caused by short-distance falls. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2001;22(1):1–2.Google Scholar
Atkinson, N, Van Rijn, RR, Starling, SP. Childhood falls with occipital impacts. Pediatric Emergency Care. 2018;34(12):837–41.Google Scholar
Christian, CW, Block, R. Abusive head trauma in infants and children. Pediatrics. 2009;123(5):1409–11.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K et al. Medical findings and symptoms in infants exposed to witnessed or admitted abusive shaking: A nationwide registry study. PLoS One. 2020;15(10):e0240182.Google Scholar
Finnie, JW, Blumbergs, PC, Manavis, J et al. Neuropathological changes in a lamb model of non-accidental head injury (the shaken baby syndrome). Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2012;19(8):1159–64.Google Scholar
Muller, PJ, Deck, JH. Intraocular and optic nerve sheath hemorrhage in cases of sudden intracranial hypertension. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1974;41(2):160–6.Google Scholar
De Leeuw, M, Beuls, E, Jorens, PG, Parizel, P, Jacobs, W. The optic nerve sheath hemorrhage is a non-specific finding in cases of suspected child abuse. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 2015;36:43–8.Google Scholar
Lantz, PE, Adams, GG. Postmortem monocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. Journal of Forensic Science. 2005;50(6):JFS2005137-3.Google Scholar
Lantz, PE, Stanton, CA. Postmortem detection and evaluation of retinal hemorrhages. In 58th Annual Scientific Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 2006.Google Scholar
Personal communications with Dr Pat Lantz.Google Scholar
Thiblin, I, Andersson, J, Wester, K, Högberg, G, Högberg, U. Retinal haemorrhage in infants investigated for suspected maltreatment is strongly correlated with intracranial pathology. Acta Paediatrica. 2022;111(4):800–8.Google Scholar
Squier, W. Infant retinal haemorrhages correlate with chronic subdural haemorrhage, not shaking. Acta Paediatrica. 2022; 111(4):714–15.Google Scholar
Miller, R, Miller, ME. Overrepresentation of males in traumatic brain injury of infancy and in infants with macrocephaly: Further evidence that questions the existence of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2010;31:165–73.Google Scholar
Miller, D, Barnes, P, Miller, M. The significance of macrocephaly or enlarging head circumference in infants with the triad: Further evidence of mimics of shaken baby syndrome. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2015;36(2):111.Google Scholar
Krasnokutsky, MV. Cerebral venous thrombosis: A potential mimic of primary traumatic brain injury in infants. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2011;197(3):W503–W507.Google Scholar
https://onsbs.com/prologue.Google Scholar
David, TJ. Non-accidental head injury: The evidence. Pediatric Radiology. 2008;38:370–7.Google Scholar
Leestma, JE. ‘Shaken baby syndrome’: Do confessions by alleged perpetrators validate the concept? Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons. 2006;11:14–26.Google Scholar
Hampton, JR, Harrison, MJ, Mitchell, JR, Prichard, JS, Seymour, C. Relative contributions of history-taking, physical examination, and laboratory investigation to diagnosis and management of medical outpatients. British Medical Journal. 1975;2(5969):486–9.Google Scholar
National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome. www.dontshake.org/learn-more.Google Scholar
Plunkett, J. Recognizing abusive head trauma in children. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1999;282(15):1421–2.Google Scholar
Flaherty, EG, Stirling, J, Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. The pedian’s role in child maltreatment prevention.Pediatrics. 2010;126(4):833–41.Google Scholar
Donohoe, M. Evidence-based medicine and shaken baby syndrome. Part 1: Literature review. 1966–1998. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 2003;24:239–42.Google Scholar
Lynøe, N, Elinder, G, Hallberg, B et al. Insufficient evidence for ‘shaken baby syndrome’: A systematic review. Acta Paediatrica. 2017;106(7):1021–7.Google Scholar
Guthkelch, AN. Problems of infant retino-dural hemorrhage with minimal external injury. Houston Journal of Health Law and Policy. 2012;12:201–8.Google Scholar
Choudhary, AK, Servaes, S, Slovis, TL et al. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatric Radiology. 2018;48(8):1048–65.Google Scholar
Strouse, PJ. Child abuse: We have problems. Pediatric Radiology. 2016;46:587–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-016-3551-9.Google Scholar
Hymel, KP. Denying the abusive head trauma denialists their day in court, one step at a time. Pediatric Radiology. 2019;49(13):1710–11.Google Scholar
The backfire effect: Why facts don’t always change minds. https://effectiviology.com/backfire-effect-facts-dont-change-minds.Google Scholar
Adelson, L. The battering child. JAMA. 1972;222(2):159–61.Google Scholar
Gladwell, M. Talking to strangers: What we should know about the people we don’t know. Penguin UK, 2019.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×