Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T18:45:36.283Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

5 - Spectroscopy of Ices, Volatiles, and Organics in the Visible and Infrared Regions

from Part I - Theory of Remote Compositional Analysis Techniques and Laboratory Measurements

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2019

By
Dale P. Cruikshank ,
Lyuba V. Moroz  and
Roger N. Clark
Edited by
Janice L. Bishop ,
James F. Bell III  and
Jeffrey E. Moersch
Janice L. Bishop
Affiliation:
SETI Institute, California
James F. Bell III
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Jeffrey E. Moersch
Affiliation:
University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Get access

Summary

Ices of various compositions and in various phases and combinations with one another are found on planetary surfaces through remote sensing techniques, of which optical spectroscopy is the most powerful and diagnostic. Ices also are found in combination with minerals and organic materials; some complex organic materials are the result of energetic processing of ices, while some may represent organic matter from other sources. Remote spectroscopic observations from Earth-based telescopes and planetary probes are usually interpreted with the aid of radiative transfer models that account for the compositions, particle properties, mixing configurations and other parameters relevant to the materials under consideration. This chapter reviews the spectroscopic character of planetary ices in pure states and in combinations with one another, and with minerals and organic solid materials found by remote sensing techniques and by the analysis of analog materials, both naturally occurring and synthesized in the laboratory and thus available for analytical studies.

Keywords

spectroscopyvolatilesorganicicecarbonhydrocarbontholin
Type
Chapter
Information
Remote Compositional Analysis
Techniques for Understanding Spectroscopy, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry of Planetary Surfaces
 , pp. 102 - 119
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allamandola, L.J., Sandford, S.A., & Wopenka, B. (1987) Interstellar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and carbon in interplanetary dust particles and meteorites. Science, 237, 56–59.Google Scholar
Altwegg, K., Balsiger, H., Berthelier, J.J., et al. (2017) Organics in comet 67P – a first comparative analysis of mass spectra from ROSINA-DFMS, COSAC, and Ptolemy. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 469, Issue Supplement 2, S130–S141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barucci, M.A., Merlin, F., Guilbert, A., et al. (2008) Surface composition and temperature of the TNO Orcus. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 479, L13–L16.Google Scholar
Barucci, M.A., Dalle Ore, C.M., Perna, D., et al. (2015) (50000) Quaoar: Surface composition variability. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 584, A107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, C.J., Pirim, C., & Orlando, T.M. (2013) Space-weathering of Solar System bodies: A laboratory perspective. Chemical Reviews, 113, 9086–9150.Google Scholar
Blake, D., Allamandola, L., Sandford, S., Hudgins, D., & Freund, F. (1991) Clathrate hydrate formation in amorphous cometary ice analogs in vacuo. Science, 254, 548–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, A.J. (2014) Spectral bluing induced by small particles under the Mie and Rayleigh regimes. Icarus, 239, 85–95.Google Scholar
Brown, A.J., Calvin, W.M., Becerra, P., & Byrne, S. (2016) Martian north polar cap summer water cycle. Icarus, 277, 401–415.Google Scholar
Brown, M.E. & Calvin, W.M. (2000) Evidence for crystalline water and ammonia ices on Pluto’s satellite Charon. Science, 287, 107–109.Google Scholar
Cable, M.L., Hörst, S.M., Hodyss, R., et al. (2012) Titan tholins: Simulating Titan organic chemistry in the Cassini-Huygens era. Chemical Reviews, 112, 1882–1909.Google Scholar
Capaccioni, F., Coradini, A., Filacchione, G., et al. (2015) The organic-rich surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko as seen by VIRTIS/Rosetta. Science, 347, aaa0628.Google Scholar
Chaban, G.M., Bernstein, M., & Cruikshank, D.P. (2007) Carbon dioxide on planetary bodies: Theoretical and experimental studies of molecular complexes. Icarus, 187, 592–599.Google Scholar
Chassefière, E., Dartois, E., Herri, J.-M., et al. (2013) CO2–SO2 clathrate hydrate formation on early Mars. Icarus, 223, 878–891.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choukroun, M., Kieffer, S.W., Lu, X., & Tobie, G. (2013) Clathrate hydrates: Implications for exchange processes in the outer Solar System. In: The science of Solar System ices (Gudipati, M.S. & Castillo-Rogez, J., eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, New York, 409–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R.N. (1981) The spectral reflectance of water‐mineral mixtures at low temperatures. Journal of Geophysical Research, 86, 3074–3086.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R.N. & Lucey, P.G. (1984) Spectral properties of ice‐particulate mixtures and implications for remote sensing: 1. Intimate mixtures. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89, 6341–6348.Google Scholar
Clark, R.N. & Roush, T.L. (1984) Reflectance spectroscopy: Quantitative analysis techniques for remote sensing applications. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89, 6329–6340.Google Scholar
Clark, R.N., Fanale, F.P., & Gaffey, M.J. (1986) Surface composition of satellites. In: Satellites (Burns, J. & Matthews, M.S., eds.), University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 437–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R.N., Curchin, J.M., Hoefen, T.M., & Swayze, G.A. (2009) Reflectance spectroscopy of organic compounds: 1. Alkanes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, E03001, DOI:10.1029/2008JE003150.Google Scholar
Clark, R.N., Cruikshank, D.P., Jaumann, R., et al. (2012) The surface composition of Iapetus: Mapping results from Cassini VIMS. Icarus, 218, 831–860.Google Scholar
Clark, R.N., Carlson, R., Grundy, W., & Noll, K. (2013) Observed ices in the Solar System. In: The science of Solar System ices (Gudipati, M.S. & Castillo-Rogez, J., eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, New York, 3–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R.N., Swayze, G.A., Carlson, R., Grundy, W., & Noll, K. (2014) Spectroscopy from space. In: Spectroscopic methods in mineralogy and material sciences (Henderson, G., ed.). Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry, 78, 399–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clemett, S.J., Maechling, C.R., Zare, R.N., Swan, P.D., & Walker, R.M. (1993) Identification of complex aromatic molecules in individual interplanetary dust particles. Science, 262, 721–725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloutis, E.A. (1989) Spectral reflectance properties of hydrocarbons: Remote-sensing implications. Science, 245, 165–168.Google Scholar
Cloutis, E.A. (2003) Quantitative characterization of coal properties using bidirectional diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Fuel, 82, 2239–2254.Google Scholar
Cloutis, E.A., Gaffey, M.J., & Moslow, T.F. (1994) Spectral reflectance properties of carbon-bearing materials. Icarus, 107, 276–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloutis, E.A., Hiroi, T., Gaffey, M.J., Alexander, C.M.O.D., & Mann, P. (2011) Spectral reflectance properties of carbonaceous chondrites: 1. CI chondrites. Icarus, 212, 180–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, J.C., Desch, S.J., Roush, T.L., Trujillo, C.A., & Geballe, T. (2007) Near-infrared spectroscopy of Charon: Possible evidence for cryovolcanism on Kuiper Belt objects. The Astrophysical Journal, 663, 1406.Google Scholar
Cooper, J.F., Christian, E.R., Richardson, J.D., & Wang, C. (2003) Proton irradiation of Centaur, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud objects at plasma to cosmic ray energy. Earth, Moon, and Planets, 92, 961–277.Google Scholar
Cronin, J.R., Pizzarello, S., & Cruikshank, D.P. (1988) Organic matter in carbonaceous chondrites, planetary satellites, asteroids and comets. In: Meteorites and the early Solar System (Kerridge, J.F. & Matthews, M.S., eds.). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 819–857.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, D. & Khare, B. (2000) Planetary surfaces of low albedo: Organic material throughout the Solar System. A new era in bioastronomy (Lemarchand, G.A. & Meech, K.J., eds.) ASP Conference Series, 213, 253–262.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, D.P., Brown, R., & Clark, R. (1985) Methane ice on Triton and Pluto. In: Ices in the Solar System (Klinger, J., Benest, D., Dollfus, A., & Smoluchowski, R., eds.). Springer-Verlag, New York, 817–827.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, D.P., Roush, T.L., Owen, T.C., et al. (1993) Ices on the surface of Triton. Science, 261, 742–745.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, D., Roush, T., Bartholomew, M., et al. (1998) The composition of centaur 5145 Pholus. Icarus, 135, 389–407.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, D.P., Meyer, A.W., Brown, R.H., et al. (2010) Carbon dioxide on the satellites of Saturn: Results from the Cassini VIMS investigation and revisions to the VIMS wavelength scale. Icarus, 206, 561–572.Google Scholar
Cull, S., Arvidson, R.E., Mellon, M., et al. (2010) Seasonal H2O and CO2 ice cycles at the Mars Phoenix landing site: 1. Prelanding CRISM and HiRISE observations. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, DOI:10.1029/2009JE003340.Google Scholar
Cuzzi, J., Clark, R., Filacchione, G., et al. (2009) Ring particle composition and size distribution. In: Saturn after Cassini/Huygens (Dougherty, M.K., Esposito, L.W., & Krimigis, S.M., eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, New York, 459–509.Google Scholar
Dalle Ore, C.M., Barucci, M., Emery, J., et al. (2015) The composition of “ultra-red” TNOS and Centaurs. Icarus, 252, 311–326.Google Scholar
Dalle Ore, C. M., Protopapa, S., Cook, J.C. et al. (2018) Ices on Charon: Distribution of H2O and NH3 from New Horizons LEISA observations. Icarus, 300, 21–32.Google Scholar
Dartois, E. (2010) Clathrates hydrates FTIR spectroscopy: Infrared signatures and their astrophysical significance. Molecular Physics, 108, 2273–2278.Google Scholar
Dartois, E. & Deboffle, D. (2008) Methane clathrate hydrate FTIR spectrum: Implications for its cometary and planetary detection. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 490, L19-L22.Google Scholar
Dartois, E. & Schmitt, B. (2009) Carbon dioxide clathrate hydrate FTIR spectrum-near infrared combination modes for astrophysical remote detection. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 504, 869–873.Google Scholar
Dartois, E., Engrand, C., Brunetto, R., et al. (2013) UltraCarbonaceous Antarctic micrometeorites, probing the Solar System beyond the nitrogen snow-line. Icarus, 224, 243–252.Google Scholar
de Bergh, C., Schmitt, B., Moroz, L., Quirico, E., & Cruikshank, D.P. (2008) Laboratory data on ices, refractory carbonaceous materials, and minerals relevant to transneptunian objects and Centaurs. In: The Solar System beyond Neptune (Barucci, A., Boehnhardt, H., Cruikshank, D.P., & Morbidelli, A., eds.). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 483–506.Google Scholar
Devlin, J.P. & Buch, V. (1997) Vibrational spectroscopy and modeling of the surface and subsurface of ice and of ice-adsorbate interactions. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101, 6095–6098.Google Scholar
Devlin, J.P. & Buch, V. (2003) Ice nanoparticles and ice adsorbate interactions: FTIR spectroscopy and computer simulations. In: Water in confining geometries (Buch, V. & Devlin, J.P., eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, 425–462.Google Scholar
Flynn, G., Keller, L., Feser, M., Wirick, S., & Jacobsen, C. (2003) The origin of organic matter in the Solar System: Evidence from the interplanetary dust particles. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67, 4791–4806.Google Scholar
Flynn, G., Keller, L., Jacobsen, C., & Wirick, S. (2004) An assessment of the amount and types of organic matter contributed to the Earth by interplanetary dust. Advances in Space Research, 33, 57–66.Google Scholar
Gladstone, G.R., Stern, S.A., Ennico, K., et al. (2016) The atmosphere of Pluto as observed by New Horizons. Science, 351, aad8866.Google Scholar
Gradie, J. & Veverka, J. (1980) The composition of the Trojan asteroids. Nature, 283, 840.Google Scholar
Grundy, W.M., Binzel, R.P., Buratti, B.J., et al. (2016) Surface compositions across Pluto and Charon. Science, 351, aad9189-8.Google Scholar
Gudipati, M.S., Castillo-Rogez, J., eds. (2013) The science of Solar System ices. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, 356. Springer Science+Business Media, New York.Google Scholar
Hapke, B. (1981) Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy: 1. Theory. Journal of Geophysical Research, 86, 3039–3054.Google Scholar
Hapke, B. (1993) Theory of reflectance and emittance spectroscopy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hapke, B. (2012) Theory of reflectance and emittance spectroscopy, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hernandez, J., Uras, N., & Devlin, J.P. (1998) Coated ice nanocrystals from water−adsorbate vapor mixtures: Formation of ether−CO2 clathrate hydrate nanocrystals at 120 K. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 102, 4526–4535.Google Scholar
Hobbs, P.V. (2010) Ice physics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hudson, R., Palumbo, M., Strazzulla, G., Moore, M., Cooper, J., & Sturner, S. (2008) Laboratory studies of the chemistry of Transneptunian Object surface materials. In: The Solar System beyond Neptune (Barucci, A., Boehnhardt, H., Cruikshank, & D.P. Morbidelli, , eds.). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 507–523.Google Scholar
Imanaka, H., Khare, B.N., Elsila, J.E., et al. (2004) Laboratory experiments of Titan tholin formed in cold plasma at various pressures: Implications for nitrogen-containing polycyclic aromatic compounds in Titan haze. Icarus, 168, 344–366.Google Scholar
Imanaka, H., Cruikshank, D.P., Khare, B.N., & McKay, C.P. (2012) Optical constants of laboratory synthesized complex organic materials: Part 1, Titan tholins at mid-infrared wavelengths (2.5–25 µm). Icarus, 218, 247–261.Google Scholar
Jewitt, D.C. (2002) From Kuiper Belt object to cometary nucleus: The missing ultrared matter. The Astronomical Journal, 123, 1039.Google Scholar
Kebukawa, Y., Alexander, C.M.D., & Cody, G.D. (2011) Compositional diversity in insoluble organic matter in type 1, 2 and 3 chondrites as detected by infrared spectroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 75, 3530–3541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerridge, J.F. (1999) Formation and processing of organics in the early Solar System. Space Science Review, 90, 275–288.Google Scholar
Khare, B.N., Sagan, C., Arakawa, E., Suits, F., Callcott, T., & Williams, M. (1984) Optical constants of organic tholins produced in a simulated Titanian atmosphere: From soft X-ray to microwave frequencies. Icarus, 60, 127–137.Google Scholar
Kokaly, R.F., Clark, R.N., Swayze, G.A., et al. (2017) USGS spectral library version 7. USGS Data Series.Google Scholar
Korochantsev, A., Badjukov, D., Moroz, L., & Pershin, S. (1997) Experiments on impact-induced transformations of asphaltite. Experimental Geoscience, 6, 66–67.Google Scholar
Krasnopolsky, V.A. & Cruikshank, D.P. (1999) Photochemistry of Pluto’s atmosphere and ionosphere near perihelion. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 21979–21996.Google Scholar
Kwok, S. & Zhang, Y. (2011) Mixed aromatic–aliphatic organic nanoparticles as carriers of unidentified infrared emission features. Nature, 479, 80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagerkvist, C.-I., Moroz, L., Nathues, A., et al. (2005) A study of Cybele asteroids-II. Spectral properties of Cybele asteroids. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 432, 349–354.Google Scholar
Lauretta, D. & McSween, H.Y. Jr., eds. (2006) Meteorites and the early Solar System II.University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Lebreton, J.-P., Coustenis, A., Lunine, J., Raulin, F., Owen, T., & Strobel, D. (2009) Results from the Huygens probe on Titan. The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, 17, 149–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucey, P.G. & Clark, R.N. (1985) Spectral properties of water ice and contaminants. In: Ices in the Solar System (Klinger, J., Benest, D., Dollfus, A., & Smoluchowski, R., eds.). Springer-Verlag, New York, 155–168.Google Scholar
Luspay-Kuti, A., Mousis, O., Hässig, M., et al. (2016) The presence of clathrates in comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Science Advances, 2, e1501781.Google Scholar
Manca, C., Martin, C., & Roubin, P. (2003) Comparative study of gas adsorption on amorphous ice: Thermodynamic and spectroscopic features of the adlayer and the surface. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 107, 8929–8934.Google Scholar
Mastrapa, R., Bernstein, M., Sandford, S., Roush, T., Cruikshank, D., & Dalle Ore, C. (2008) Optical constants of amorphous and crystalline H2O-ice in the near infrared from 1.1 to 2.6 μm. Icarus, 197, 307–320.Google Scholar
Mastrapa, R., Grundy, W., & Gudipati, M.S. (2013) Amorphous and crystalline H2O ice. In: The science of Solar System ices (Gudipati, M.S. & Castillo-Rogez, J., eds.). Springer Science+Business Media, 371–408.Google Scholar
Materese, C.K., Cruikshank, D.P., Sandford, S.A., Imanaka, H., Nuevo, M., & White, D.W. (2014) Ice chemistry on outer Solar System bodies: Carboxylic acids, nitriles, and urea detected in refractory residues produced from the UV photolysis of N2: CH4: CO-containing ices. The Astrophysical Journal, 788, 111.Google Scholar
Materese, C.K., Cruikshank, D.P., Sandford, S.A., Imanaka, H., & Nuevo, M. (2015) Ice chemistry on outer Solar System bodies: Electron radiolysis of N2-, CH4-, and CO-containing ices. The Astrophysical Journal, 812, 150.Google Scholar
McDonald, G.D., Whited, L.J., DeRuiter, C., et al. (1996) Production and chemical analysis of cometary ice tholins. Icarus, 122, 107–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moroz, L. & Arnold, G. (1999) Influence of neutral components on relative band contrasts in reflectance spectra of intimate mixtures: Implications for remote sensing: 1. Nonlinear mixing modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 14109–14121.Google Scholar
Moroz, L.V., Arnold, G., Korochantsev, A.V., & Wäsch, R. (1998) Natural solid bitumens as possible analogs for cometary and asteroid organics: 1. Reflectance spectroscopy of pure bitumens Icarus, 134, 253–268.Google Scholar
Moroz, L.V., Baratta, G., Atrazzulla, G., et al. (2004) Optical alteration of complex organics induced by ion irradiation: 1. Laboratory experiments suggest unusual space weathering trend. Icarus, 170, 214–228.Google Scholar
Oancea, A., Grasset, O., Le Menn, E., et al. (2012) Laboratory infrared reflection spectrum of carbon dioxide clathrate hydrates for astrophysical remote sensing applications. Icarus, 221, 900–910.Google Scholar
Owen, T.C., Roush, T.L., Cruikshank, D.P., et al. (1993) Surface ices and the atmospheric composition of Pluto. Science, 261, 745–748.Google Scholar
Pizzarello, S., Cooper, G., & Flynn, G. (2006) The nature and distribution of the organic material in carbonaceous chondrites and interplanetary dust particles. In: Meteorites and the early Solar System II (Lauretta, D.S. & McSween, H.Y., Jr., eds.). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 625–651.Google Scholar
Prokhvatilov, A. & Yantsevich, L. (1983) X-ray investigation of the equilibrium phase diagram of CH4–N2 solid mixtures. Soviet Journal of Low Temperature Physics, 9, 94–98.Google Scholar
Protopapa, S., Grundy, W., Tegler, S., & Bergonio, J. (2015) Absorption coefficients of the methane–nitrogen binary ice system: Implications for Pluto. Icarus, 253, 179–188.Google Scholar
Quirico, E. & Schmitt, B. (1997a) Near-infrared spectroscopy of simple hydrocarbons and carbon oxides diluted in solid N2 and as pure ices: Implications for Triton and Pluto. Icarus, 127, 354–378.Google Scholar
Quirico, E. & Schmitt, B. (1997b) A spectroscopic study of CO diluted in N2 ice: Applications for Triton and Pluto. Icarus, 128, 181–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quirico, E., Schmitt, B., Bini, R., & Salvi, P.R. (1996) Spectroscopy of some ices of astrophysical interest: SO2, N2 and N2: CH4 mixtures. Planetary and Space Science, 44, 973–986.Google Scholar
Quirico, E., Borg, J., Raynal, P.-I., Montagnac, G., & d’Hendecourt, L. (2005) A micro-Raman survey of 10 IDPs and 6 carbonaceous chondrites. Planetary and Space Science, 53, 1443–1448.Google Scholar
Quirico, E., Montagnac, G., Lees, V., et al. (2008) New experimental constraints on the composition and structure of tholins. Icarus, 198, 218–231.Google Scholar
Quirico, E., Moroz, L., Schmitt, B., et al. (2016) Refractory and semi-volatile organics at the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko: Insights from the VIRTIS/Rosetta imaging spectrometer. Icarus, 272, 32–47.Google Scholar
Raulin, F., Gazeau, M.-C., & Lebreton, J.-P. (2007) A new image of Titan: Titan as seen from Huygens. Planetary and Space Science, 55, 1843–1844.Google Scholar
Sandford, S.A. (2008) Terrestrial analysis of the organic component of comet dust. Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry, 1, 549–578.Google Scholar
Sandford, S.A., Aléon, J., Alexander, C.M.D., et al. (2006) Organics captured from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft. Science, 314, 1720–1724.Google Scholar
Schmitt, B., de Bergh, C., & Festou, M., eds. (1998) Solar System ices. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Scott, T.A. (1976) Solid and liquid nitrogen. Physics Reports, 27, 89–157.Google Scholar
Sephton, M.A. (2002) Organic compounds in carbonaceous meteorites. Natural Product Reports, 19, 292–311.Google Scholar
Sill, G.T. & Clark, R.N. (1982) Composition of the surfaces of the Galilean satellites. In: The satellites of Jupiter (Morrison, D, ed.). University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 174–212.Google Scholar
Smythe, W.D. (1975) Spectra of hydrate frosts: Their application to the outer Solar System. Icarus, 24, 421–427.Google Scholar
Strazzulla, G., Baratta, G., Johnson, R., & Donn, B. (1991) Primordial comet mantle: Irradiation production of a stable organic crust. Icarus, 91, 101–104.Google Scholar
Thomas, K.L., Blanford, G.E., Keller, L.P., Klöck, W., & McKay, D.S. (1993) Carbon abundance and silicate mineralogy of anhydrous interplanetary dust particles. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 57, 1551–1556.Google Scholar
Thomas, P.J., Chyba, C.F. & McKay, C.P., eds. (2006) Comets and the origin and evolution of life. Springer Science+Business Media, New York.Google Scholar
Trafton, L.M. (2015) On the state of methane and nitrogen ice on Pluto and Triton: Implications of the binary phase diagram. Icarus, 246, 197–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velbel, M.A. & Harvey, R.P. (2009) Along‐track compositional and textural variation in extensively melted grains returned from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust mission: Implications for capture‐melting process. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 44, 1519–1540.Google Scholar
Waite, J., Young, D., Cravens, T., et al. (2007) The process of tholin formation in Titan’s upper atmosphere. Science, 316, 870–875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×