Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T05:15:04.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 January 2021

Jacques Pépin
Jacques Pépin
Affiliation:
Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
The Origins of AIDS , pp. 335 - 366
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Primary Sources

Gottlieb, M et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: Los Ang eles. MMWR 1981;30:250–2.Google Scholar
Shilts, R. And the band played on: politics, people and the AIDS epidemic. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.Google Scholar
UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2019. Geneva: UNAIDS, 2019.Google Scholar
Garrett, L. The coming plague: newly emerging diseases in a world out of balance. New York: Penguin Books, 1994.Google Scholar
Illiffe, J. The African AIDS epidemic: a history. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Fassin, D. When bodies remember: experiences and politics of AIDS in South Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Hooper, E. The river: a journey back to the source of HIV and AIDS. London: Little Brown, 1999.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Parenteral transmission during ritual excision and treatment of tuberculosis and sleeping sickness may be responsible for the HIV-2 epidemic in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 2006;20:1303–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, GP et al. Transmission of HIV-1 infection in sub-Saharan Africa and effect of elimination of unsafe injections. Lancet 2004;363:482–8.Google Scholar

Secondary Sources

Piot, P et al. AIDS in a heterosexual population in Zaire. Lancet 1984;ii:65–9.Google Scholar
Van de Perre, P et al. Female prostitutes: a risk group for infection with HTLV-III. Lancet 1985;ii:524–6.Google Scholar
Desmyter, J et al. Anti LAV-HTLV-III in Kinshasa mothers in 1970 and 1980. Presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Paris, 1985.Google Scholar
Nzila, N et al. The prevalence of infection with HIV over a 10-year period in rural Zaire. N Eng J Med 1988;318:276–9.Google Scholar
Foley, B et al. Apparent founder effect during the early years of the San Francisco HIV-1 epidemic (1978–79). AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2000;15:1463–9.Google Scholar
Moore, JD et al. HTLV-III seropositivity in 1971–72 parenteral drug abusers: a case of false positives or evidence of viral exposure. N Eng J Med 1986;314:1387–8.Google Scholar
Garrett, L. The coming plague: newly emerging diseases in a world out of balance. New York: Penguin Books, 1994.Google Scholar
International Commission. Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976. Report of an international commission. Bull World Health Organ 1978;56:271–93.Google Scholar
Close, W. Ebola: a novel of the first outbreak by a doctor who was there. London: Arrow Books, 1995.Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. HIV/AIDS surveillance database. www.census.gov/programs-surveys/international-programs/about/hiv.htmlGoogle Scholar
Piot, P et al. Retrospective seroepidemiology of AIDS virus infection in Nairobi populations. J Infect Dis 1987;155:1108–12.Google Scholar
Lyons, H et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia unassociated with other disease. Arch Intern Med 1961;108:929–36.Google Scholar
Hooper, E. The river: a journey back to the source of HIV and AIDS. London: Little Brown, 1999.Google Scholar
Shilts, R. And the band played on: politics, people and the AIDS epidemic. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.Google Scholar
Froland, S. HIV-1 infection in a Norwegian family before 1970. Lancet 1988;i:1344–5.Google Scholar
Jonassen, T et al. Sequence analysis of HIV-1 group O from Norwegian patients infected in the 1960s. Virology 1997;231:43–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bygbjerg, I. AIDS in a Danish surgeon (Zaire 1976). Lancet 1983;i:925.Google Scholar
Nemeth, A et al. Early case of AIDS in a child from Zaire. Sex Transm Dis 1986;13:111–13.Google Scholar
Rogan, E et al. A case of AIDS before 1980. Can Med Assoc J 1987;137:637–8.Google Scholar
Sonnet, J et al. Early AIDS cases originating from Zaire and Burundi (1962–1976). Scand J Infect Dis 1987;19:511–17.Google Scholar
Clumeck, N. AIDS in African patients. N Eng J Med 1984;310:492–7.Google Scholar
Nahmias, A et al. Evidence for human infection with HTLV-III/LAV-like virus in Central Africa, 1959. Lancet 1986;i:1279–80.Google Scholar
Zhu, T et al. An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic. Nature 1998;391:594–7.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 2008;55:661–4.Google Scholar
Peeters, M et al. The origin and molecular epidemiology of HIV. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013:11:885–96.Google Scholar
Los Alamos National Laboratory. The circulating recombinant forms. www.hiv.lanl.gov/content/sequence/HIV/CRFs/CRFs.htmlGoogle Scholar
Paleebu, P et al. Effect of HIV-1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1 positive persons in Uganda. J Infect Dis 2002;185:1244–50.Google Scholar
John-Stewart, G et al. Subtype C is associated with increased vaginal shedding of HIV-1. J Infect Dis 2005;192:492–6.Google Scholar
Novitsky, V et al. Viral load and CD4+ T-cell dynamics in primary HIV-1 subtype C infection. JAIDS 2009;50:65–76.Google Scholar
van Harmelen, J et al. An association between HIV-1 subtypes and mode of transmission in Cape Town, South Africa. AIDS 1997;11:81–7.Google Scholar
Hemelaar, J et al. Global and regional molecular epidemiology of HIV-1, 1990–2015: a systematic review, global survey, and trend analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2019;19:143–55.Google Scholar
Nadal, Y et al. HIV-1 epidemic in the Caribbean is dominated by subtype B. PLoS One 2009;4:e4814.Google Scholar
Cuevas, M et al. High HIV-1 genetic diversity in Cuba. AIDS 2002;16:1643–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falk, P. Cuba in Africa. Foreign Affairs 1987;65:1077–96.Google Scholar
George, E. The Cuban intervention in Angola, 1965–1991: from Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. London: Routledge, 2012.Google Scholar
Abecasis, A et al. HIV-1 genetic variants circulation in the north of Angola. Infect Genet Evol 2005;5:231–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peeters, M et al. Genetic diversity of HIV in Africa: impact on diagnosis, treatment, vaccine development and trials. AIDS 2003;17:2547–60.Google Scholar
Muller-Trutwin, M et al. Increase of HIV-1 subtype A in Central African Republic. JAIDS 1999;21:164–71.Google Scholar
Mboudjeka, I et al. Genetic diversity of HIV-1 group M from Cameroon and Republic of Congo. Arch Virol 1999;144:2291–311.Google Scholar
Vidal, N et al. Unprecedented degree of HIV-1 group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. J Virol 2000;74:10498–507.Google Scholar
Vidal, N et al. Distribution of HIV-1 variants in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests increase of subtype C in Kinshasa between 1997 and 2002. JAIDS 2005;40:456–62.Google Scholar
Kalish, M et al. Recombinant viruses and early global HIV-1 epidemic. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:1227–34.Google Scholar
Niama, F et al. HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants in the Republic of Congo. Infect Genet Evol 2006;6:337–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pirchner, M et al. Molecular characterization of HIV-1 in Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, and first data on resistance to antiretroviral drugs. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2012;28:1798–802.Google Scholar
Faria, N et al. Phylodynamics of the HIV-1 CRF02_AG clade in Cameroon. Infect Gen Evol 2012;12:453–60.Google Scholar
Peterson, D. Jane Goodall: the woman who redefined man. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006.Google Scholar
Greene, M. Jane Goodall: a biography. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Humle, T. et al. Pan troglodytes. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. www.iucnredlist.org/species/15933/129038584Google Scholar
Teleki, G. Population status of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and threats to survival. In Hetne, P and Marquardt, L (eds), Understanding chimpanzees. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Wilbert, R et al. ‘Pastoria’, centre de recherches biologiques et d’élevage de singes. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1931;24:131–48.Google Scholar
Leroy, E et al. Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife. Science 2004;303:387–90.Google Scholar
Tutin, C et al. Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. Am J Primatol 1984;6:313–36.Google Scholar
Tutin, C et al. Regional action plan for the conservation of chimpanzees and gorillas in Western Equatorial Africa. www.primate-sg.org//PDF/ApesRAP.French2.pdfGoogle Scholar
Tutin, C. Saving the gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan t. troglodytes) of the Congo basin. Reprod Fertil Dev 2001;13:469–76.Google Scholar
Peeters, M et al. Isolation and partial characterization of an HIV-related virus occurring naturally in chimpanzees in Gabon. AIDS 1989;3:625–30.Google Scholar
Huet, T et al. Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV-1. Nature 1990;345:356–9.Google Scholar
Janssens, W et al. Phylogenetic analysis of a new chimpanzee lentivirus SIVcpz-gab2 from a wild-captured chimpanzee from Gabon. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 1994;10:1191–2.Google Scholar
Peeters, M et al. Isolation and characterization of a new chimpanzee lentivirus (simian immunodeficiency virus isolate cpz-ant) from a wild-captured chimpanzee. AIDS 1992;6:447–51.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. Almost chimpanzee: searching for what makes us human, in rainforests, labs, sanctuaries and zoos. New York: Times Books, 2010.Google Scholar
Peterson, D. Eating apes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Gilden, R et al. HTLV-III antibody in a breeding chimpanzee not experimentally exposed to the virus. Lancet 1986;i:678–9.Google Scholar
Gao, F et al. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 1999;397:436–41.Google Scholar
Santiago, M et al. SIVcpz in wild chimpanzees. Science 2002;295:465.Google Scholar
Santiago, M et al. Foci of endemic SIV infection in wild-living eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). J Virol 2003;77:7545–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince, A et al. Lack of evidence for HIV type 1-related SIVcpz infection in captive and wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in West Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2002;9:657–60.Google Scholar
Keele, B et al. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1. Science 2006;313:523–6.Google Scholar
Boué, V et al. High rate of SIV infections in wild chimpanzees in northeastern Gabon. Viruses 2015;7:4997–5015.Google Scholar
Corbet, S. env sequences of simian immunodeficiency viruses from chimpanzees in Cameroon are strongly related to those of HIV group N from the same geographic area. J Virol 2000;74:529–34.Google Scholar
Van Heuverswyn, F et al. Genetic diversity and phylogeographic clustering of SIVcpz in wild chimpanzees in Cameroon. Virology 2007;368:155–71.Google Scholar
Sharp, PM et al. The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS. Phil Trans R Soc B 2010;365:2487–94.Google Scholar
Van Heuverswyn, F et al. SIV infection in wild gorillas. Nature 2006;444:164.Google Scholar
Takehisa, J et al. Origin and biology of SIV in wild-living western gorillas. J Virol 2009;83:1635–48.Google Scholar
Vigilant, L et al. Paternity and relatedness in wild chimpanzee communities. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:12890–5.Google Scholar
Hey, J. The divergence of chimpanzee species and subspecies as revealed in multipopulation isolation-with-migration analyses. Mol Biol Evol 2010;29:921–33.Google Scholar
de Waal, F et al. Bonobo: the forgotten ape. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Li, Y et al. Eastern chimpanzees, but not bonobos, represent a simian immunodeficiency virus reservoir. J Virol 2012;86:10776–91.Google Scholar
Kapita, B. Sida en Afrique. Kinshasa: Éditions Centre de Vulgarisation Agricole, 1988.Google Scholar
Pales, L. État actuel de la paléopathologie: contribution à l’étude de la pathologie comparative. Université de Bordeaux, 1929.Google Scholar
Service historique de la défense. Château de Vincennes, Paris. File GR 2000Z 202 6242.Google Scholar
Sautter, G. Notes sur la construction du chemin de fer Congo-Océan (1921–1934). Cah Etud Afr 1967;7:219–99.Google Scholar
Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence. Files 3H7, 3H9, 3H12, 3H13, 3H14, 3H34, 3H36, 3H37, 3H52, 3H53.Google Scholar
Lefrou, G. Contribution à l’étude de l’utilisation de la main d’oeuvre indigène. Considérations médicales sur le personnel des chantiers de construction du chemin de fer Congo-Océan. Ann Med Pharm Col 1927:25:5–51.Google Scholar
Headrick, R. Colonialism, health and illness in French Equatorial Africa, 1885–1935. Atlanta: African Studies Association Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Pales, L. Les lésions anatomopathologiques de la pneumococcie en AEF d’après 85 autopsies. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1933:26:1182–91.Google Scholar
Pales, L. Les lésions anatomopathologiques de la pneumococcie en AEF d’après 85 autopsies Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1934:27:45–55.Google Scholar
Pales, L. La tuberculose des Noirs vue d’Afrique Équatoriale Française. Revue de la Tuberculose 1938;4:190–8.Google Scholar
Auclert, J. Contribution à l’étude de la tuberculose des Noirs et de ses lésions anatomiques en Afrique Équatoriale Française. Université de Marseille, 1937.Google Scholar
Pales, L et al. Le taux de la glycémie chez le Noir en AEF, et ses variations avec les états pathologiques. La Presse Médicale 1934;38:765–8.Google Scholar
Pales, L. Les constituants bio-chimiques du sang des Noirs soudanais occidentaux transplantés en France. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 1945:6:15–62.Google Scholar
Korber, B et al. Limitations of a molecular clock applied to considerations of the origin of HIV-1. Science 1998;280:1868–71.Google Scholar
Korber, B et al. Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science 2000;288:1789–96.Google Scholar
Yusim, K et al. Using HIV-1 sequences to infer historical features of the AIDS epidemic and HIV evolution. Phil Trans R Soc London B 2001;356:855–66.Google Scholar
Sharp, P et al. The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when? Phil Trans R Soc London B 2001;356:867–76.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 2008;55:661–4.Google Scholar
Gryseels, S et al. A near-full-length HIV-1 genome from 1966 recovered from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue. 2019. www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/687863v1Google Scholar
Faria, N et al. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations. Science 2014;346:56–61.Google Scholar
Wertheim, JO et al. Dating the age of the SIV lineages that gave rise to HIV-1 and HIV-2. PLoS Comput Biol 2009;5:e1000377.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Island biogeography reveals the deep history of SIV. Science 2010;329:1487.Google Scholar
Calattini, S et al. Simian foamy virus transmission from apes to humans, rural Cameroon. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1314–20.Google Scholar
Betsem, E et al. Frequent and recent human acquisition of simian foamy viruses through apes’ bites in Central Africa. PLoS Pathogens 2011;7:e1002306.Google Scholar
Anonyme Le chimpanzé. Congo Illustré 1894:23–4.Google Scholar
Tutin, C. Écologie et organisation sociale des primates de la forêt tropicale africaine: aide à la compréhension de la transmission des rétrovirus. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2000;93:157–61.Google Scholar
Tutin, C. Saving the gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan t. troglodytes) of the Congo basin. Reprod Fertil Dev 2001;13:469–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel du gouvernement français sur l’administration sous mandat des territoires du Cameroun pour l’année 1922. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1923.Google Scholar
Giles-Vernick, T. Cutting the vines of the past: environmental histories of the central African rain forest. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2002.Google Scholar
Ministère des Colonies. Rapport annuel sur l’administration de la colonie du Congo belge pendant l’année, présenté aux Chambres législatives. Bruxelles: Ministère des Colonies, 1927, 1945.Google Scholar
Leplae, E. Les grands animaux de chasse du Congo Belge. Bruxelles: Ministère des Colonies, 1925.Google Scholar
De Limbourg, J. La faune congolaise en péril. Bulletin du Centre d’Études des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes 1957;39:27–45.Google Scholar
Ndembi, N et al. HIV-1 infection in Pygmy hunter gatherers is from contact with Bantu rather than from nonhuman primates. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2003;19:435–9.Google Scholar
Frechkop, S. Mammifères et oiseaux protégés au Congo Belge. Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge, 1936.Google Scholar
Guernier, E. Afrique Équatoriale Française. Paris: Encyclopédie Coloniale et Maritime, 1950.Google Scholar
Perrois, L. Peuples et civilisations de la grande forêt. Paris: ORSTOM, 1967.Google Scholar
Ngoma, B. Herméneutique de quelques interdits et structures de défoulement en société yombe. Zaire-Afrique 1976:489–500.Google Scholar
Kohler, A. Of apes and men: Baka and Bantu attitudes to wildlife and the making of eco-goodies and baddies. Conserv Soc 2005;3:407–35.Google Scholar
Wolfe, N et al. Exposure to non-human primates in rural Cameroon. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:2094–9.Google Scholar
Neel, C. Molecular epidemiology of simian immunodeficiency virus infection in wild-living gorillas. J Virol 2010;84:1464–76.Google Scholar
Boué, V et al. High rate of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infections in wild chimpanzees in northeastern Gabon. Viruses 2015;7:4997–5015.Google Scholar
Keele, BF et al. Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz. Nature 2009;460:515–19.Google Scholar
Heeney, J et al. Transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVcpz and the evolution of infection in the presence and absence of concurrent HIV-1 infection in chimpanzees. J Virol 2006;80:7208–18.Google Scholar
Ondoa, P. Longitudinal comparison of virus load parameters and CD8 T-cell suppressive capacity in two SIVcpz-infected chimpanzees. J Med Primatol 2001;30:243–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brenner, BG et al. High rates of forward transmission events after acute/early HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 2007;195:951–9.Google Scholar
Ippolito, G et al. Occupational HIV infection in health care workers: worldwide cases through September 1997. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:365–83.Google Scholar
Cardo, D et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. N Eng J Med 1997;337:1485–90.Google Scholar
Hooper, E. The river: a journey back to the source of HIV and AIDS. London: Little Brown, 1999.Google Scholar
Plotkin, S. CHAT oral polio vaccine was not the source of HIV-1 group M for humans. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:1068–84.Google Scholar
Osterrieth, P. Oral polio vaccine: fact versus fiction. Vaccine 2004;22:1831–5.Google Scholar
Blancou, P et al. Polio vaccine samples not linked to AIDS. Nature 2001;410:1045–6.Google Scholar
Poinar, H et al. Molecular analyses of oral polio vaccine samples. Science 2001;292:743–4.Google Scholar
Berry, N et al. Vaccine safety: analysis of oral polio vaccine CHAT stocks. Nature 2001;410:1047.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Contamination polio vaccine theory refuted. Nature 2004;428:820.Google Scholar
Blacklock, B et al. A parasite resembling Plasmodium falciparum in a chimpanzee. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1922;16:99–106.Google Scholar
Blacklock, B et al. The pathological effects produced by Strongyloides in a chimpanzee. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1922;16:283–91.Google Scholar
Troisier, A. Le groupe sanguin II de l’homme chez les chimpanzés. Ann Inst Pasteur (Paris) 1928;42:363–79.Google Scholar
Dubois, A. Rodhain, Jérôme. Biographie belge d’outre-mer 1968;6:858–61.Google Scholar
Contacos, P et al. Experimental adaptation of simian malarias to abnormal hosts. J Parasitol 1963;49:912–18.Google Scholar
Rodhain, J et al. Sur la spécificité des plasmodiums des anthropoides de l’Afrique centrale. Compt Rend Soc Biol 1938;127:1467–8.Google Scholar
Rodhain, J et al. Contribution à l’étude du Pl. schwetzi E. Brumpt (3ème note): l’infection à Plamodium schwetzi chez l’homme. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1955;35:757–75.Google Scholar
Pettit, A. Sérothérapie antipoliomyélitique d’origine animale. Paris: Masson, 1936.Google Scholar
Kolochine Erber, B. Auguste Pettit, 1869–1939. Ann Inst Pasteur 1939;63:525–30.Google Scholar
Réal, J. Voronoff. Paris: Stock, 2001.Google Scholar
Hamilton, D. The monkey gland affair. London: Chatto & Windus, 1986.Google Scholar
Anonyme. Le prix du singe. Le Figaro, 27 October 1922.Google Scholar
Anonyme. On avait même songé à ça. L’Étoile de l’AEF, 18 January 1934.Google Scholar
Voronoff, S et al. Testicular grafting from ape to man. London: Brentano’s, 1929.Google Scholar
Ndaywel è Nziem, I. Histoire générale du Congo: de l’héritage ancien à la République Démocratique. Paris: Duculot, 1996.Google Scholar
Klein, H. The Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Trans-Atlantic slave trade database. www.slavevoyages.orgGoogle Scholar
Lammie, P et al. Eliminating lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis from the Americas: breaking a historical legacy of slavery. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2007;1:e71.Google Scholar
Martial, J. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes in the Caribbean island of Martinique: evidence for a large radiation of HCV-2 and for a recent introduction from Europe of HCV-4. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:784–91.Google Scholar
Andernach, IE et al. Slave trade and hepatitis B virus genotypes and subgenotypes in Haiti and Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15:1222–8.Google Scholar
Verdonck, K et al. HTLV-1: recent knowledge about an ancient infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2007;7:266–81.Google Scholar
Pakenham, T. The scramble for Africa: white man’s conquest of the dark continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Harper Collins, 2003.Google Scholar
De St-Moulin, L. Contribution à l’histoire de Kinshasa. Zaire-Afrique 1976;108:461–73.Google Scholar
Hochschild, A. King Leopold’s ghost: a story of greed, terror and heroism in colonial Africa. Boston: Mariner Books, 1999.Google Scholar
Ngalla, DN. Les missions catholiques et l’évolution sociale au Congo Brazzaville de 1880 à 1930 (l’oeuvre d’éducation). Brazzaville: Éditions Presse et Culture, 1993.Google Scholar
Mathieu, M. Monseigneur Augouard: un poitevin roi du Congo. La Crèche: Geste Éditions, 2006.Google Scholar
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies concessionaires 1898–1930. Paris: Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 2002.Google Scholar
Martin, J. Savorgnan de Brazza, 1852–1905. Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2005.Google Scholar
Villien, F et al. Bangui, capitale d’un pays enclavé d’Afrique centrale: étude historique et géographique. Bordeaux: CRET, 1990.Google Scholar
Ngando, BA. La France au Cameroun 1916–1939: colonialisme ou mission civilisatrice. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2002.Google Scholar
De Sousa, JD et al. Enhanced heterosexual transmission hypothesis for the origin of pandemic HIV-1. Viruses 2012:4:1950–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aymerich, J. La conquête du Cameroun, 1er août 1914–20 février 1916. Paris: Payot, 1933.Google Scholar
Etambala, MZ. La grande guerre et la campagne camerounaise de la Force Publique. In Ndaywel è Nziem, I and Mantuba-Ngoma, PM (eds), Le Congo belge dans la première guerre mondiale. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2015.Google Scholar
Dubois, C. Le double défi de l’AEF en guerre (1914–1918). Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto Italiano perd l’Africa e l’Oriente 1989;44:25–49.Google Scholar
Ministère de la Guerre. Les Armées françaises durant la grande guerre. Tome 9.2. Paris: Ministère de la Guerre, 1935.Google Scholar
Léo Bittremieux file. Archives CICM. Leuven: Kadoc Documentation and Research Center on Religion, Culture and Society.Google Scholar
Ministère des Armées. Service historique de la défense. Fonds 6H, Files 180, 182. Vincennes.Google Scholar
Deltombe, T et al. Kamerun! Une guerre cachée aux origines de la Françafrique, 1948–1971. Paris: La Découverte, 2011.Google Scholar
Maurel, A. Le Congo: de la colonisation belge à l’indépendance. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992.Google Scholar
Ndaywel è Nziem, I. Histoire générale du Congo: de l’héritage ancien à la République Démocratique. Paris: Duculot, 1996.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. The history of Congo. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. Le Congo au temps des grandes compagnies concessionaires 1898–1930. Paris: Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 2002.Google Scholar
Martin, J. Savorgnan de Brazza, 1852–1905. Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2005.Google Scholar
Villien, F et al. Bangui, capitale d’un pays enclavé d’Afrique centrale: étude historique et géographique. Bordeaux: CRET, 1990.Google Scholar
Franqueville, A. Yaoundé: construire une capitale. Paris: ORSTOM, 1984.Google Scholar
Pouquet, J. L’Afrique Équatoriale Française et le Cameroun. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1954.Google Scholar
Capelle, E. La cité indigène de Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Centre d’Étude des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes, 1947.Google Scholar
Baumer, G. Les centres indigènes extracoutumiers au Congo belge. Paris: Éditions Domat-Monchrestien, 1939.Google Scholar
Leleux, A. La cité indigène de Kinshasa. Léopoldville: Courrier d’Afrique, 1934.Google Scholar
De St-Moulin, L. Contribution à l’histoire de Kinshasa. Zaire-Afrique 1976;108:461–73.Google Scholar
Romaniuk, A. La fécondité des populations congolaises. Paris: Mouton, 1967.Google Scholar
Jewsiewicki, B. The great depression and the making of the colonial economic system in the Belgian Congo. Afr Econ Hist 1977;4:153–76.Google Scholar
Devauges, R. Le chômage à Brazzaville en 1957. Paris: ORSTOM, 1959.Google Scholar
McDonald, G et al. Area handbook for the People’s Republic of the Congo (Congo Brazzaville). Washington: American University, 1971.Google Scholar
Vanderlinden, J. Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959: coloniser dans l’honneur. Bruxelles: De Boeck Université, 1994.Google Scholar
De St-Moulin, L. L’effort de guerre 1940–1945 au Zaire. Zaire-Afrique 1985;142:91–104.Google Scholar
Van Wing, J. Quelques aspects de l’état social des populations congolaises. Bulletin des séances de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge 1947;18:185–201.Google Scholar
Van Wing, J. Le Congo déraille. Bulletin des séances de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge 1951;22:1–8.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. Villes miroirs: migrations et identité urbaines à Kinshasa et Brazzaville 1930–70. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. Oh, rio-ma! Musique et guerre des sexes à Kinshasa, 1930–1990. Rev Fr Hist O-M 1997;84:51–81.Google Scholar
Trezenem, E. L’Afrique Équatoriale Française. Paris: Éditions Maritimes et Coloniales, 1955.Google Scholar
Jennings, ET. La France libre fut africaine. Paris: Perrin, 2014.Google Scholar
MacGaffey, G et al. US Army area handbook for the Republic of Congo (Leopoldville). Washington: American University, 1962.Google Scholar
Colin, P. Un recensement des activités indépendantes à la cité indigène de Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Éditions de la Direction de l’Information, 1956.Google Scholar
Romaniuk, A. Démographie congolaise au milieu du XXe siècle. Louvain: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 2006.Google Scholar
Baeck, L. Léopoldville, phénomène urbain africain. Zaire 1956;68:613–36.Google Scholar
Denis, J. Le phénomène urbain en Afrique centrale. Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, 1958.Google Scholar
Lamal, F. L’exode massif des hommes adultes vers Léopoldville. Zaire 1959;8:365–77.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Enquêtes démographiques: Cité Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1957.Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. Kinshasa in transition: women’s education, employment, and fertility. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Raymaekers, P. L’organisation des zones de squatting. Paris: Éditions Universitaires, 1964.Google Scholar
La Fontaine, JS. City politics: a study of Léopoldville, 1962–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
United Nations Population Division. The world cities in 2018. www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdfGoogle Scholar
République démocratique du Congo. Étude socio-démographique de Kinshasa 1967. Kinshasa: République démocratique du Congo, 1969.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. Kinshasa et Brazzaville: brève histoire d’un mariage séculaire. Zaire-Afrique 1990;249:493–501.Google Scholar
Anonyme. Entre Kin et Brazza: le ‘pont Fima’. Zaire, 18–23.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel du gouvernement français à l’assemblée générale des Nations-Unies sur l’administration du Cameroun placé sous la tutelle de la France. Année 1957. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1958.Google Scholar
Franqueville, A. Une Afrique entre le village et la ville. Paris: ORSTOM, 1987.Google Scholar
Côté, AM et al. Transactional sex is the driving force in the dynamics of HIV in Accra, Ghana. AIDS 2004;18:917–25.Google Scholar
Piot, P et al. Retrospective seroepidemiology of AIDS virus infection in Nairobi populations. J Infect Dis 1987;155:1108–12.Google Scholar
Lauro, A. Coloniaux, ménagères et prostituées au Congo belge (1885–1930). Loverval: Éditions Labor, 2005.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport au Ministre des Colonies sur l’administration des territoires occupés du Cameroun pendant l’année 1921–1922–1923. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1922–4.Google Scholar
Songué, P. Prostitution en Afrique: l’exemple de Yaoundé. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1986.Google Scholar
Rich, J. Une Babylone noire: interracial unions in colonial Libreville, c.1860–1914. Fr Colon Hist 2003;4:145–70.Google Scholar
Kermorgant, A. Aperçu sur les maladies vénériennes dans les colonies françaises. Ann Hyg Med Colon 1903;6:428–60.Google Scholar
Colle, P. Les Baluba (Congo Belge). Bruxelles: Dewit, 1913.Google Scholar
Torday, E et al. Notes ethnographiques sur des populations habitant les bassins du Kasai et du Kwango oriental. Bruxelles: Musée du Congo Belge, 1922.Google Scholar
West, R. Brazza of the Congo: exploration and exploitation in French Equatorial Africa. London: Jonathan Cape, 1972.Google Scholar
Romaniuk, A. La fécondité des populations congolaises. Paris: Mouton, 1967.Google Scholar
Martin, P. Loisirs et société à Brazzaville pendant l’ère coloniale. Paris: Karthala, 2005.Google Scholar
Castellani, C. Les femmes au Congo. Paris: Flammarion, 1898.Google Scholar
Vermeersch, A. La femme congolaise: ménagère de blanc, femme de polygame, chrétienne. Bruxelles: Dewit, 1914.Google Scholar
Eynikel, H. Congo belge: portrait d’une société coloniale. Gembloux: Duculot, 1984.Google Scholar
Jeurissen, L. Quand le métis s’appelait mulâtre. Cah Migr 2003;29:14–44.Google Scholar
Coppens, P. Le problème des mulâtres. Zaire 1947;7:733–53.Google Scholar
Bolamba, AR. A propos de la prostitution. Voix du Congolais 1952:330–2.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Hôpital des Blancs de Léopoldville: rapport annuel. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1912.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Hôpital des Noirs de Boma: rapport annuel. Boma: Congo Belge, 1909.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport sur l’Hygiène Publique. Boma: Congo Belge, 1912.Google Scholar
De Baudre, . Le danger vénérien. Yaoundé: Imprimerie du Gouvernement, 1928.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel du gouvernement français aux Nations-Unies sur l’administration du Cameroun placé sous la tutelle de la France. Année 1947. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1948.Google Scholar
Rousseau; Marque; Ledentu, ; (1927, 1933, 1935) Les maladies transmissibles observées dans les colonies françaises et territoires sous mandat. Ann Med Pharm Col. www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/periodiques.phpGoogle Scholar
Territoire du Moyen-Congo. Rapport Annuel. Brazzaville: Territoire du Moyen-Congo, 1945.Google Scholar
Territoire du Moyen-Congo. Rapport médical annuel: deuxième partie (partie médicale). Brazzaville: Territoire du Moyen-Congo, 1954.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Colonie du Gabon: Service de Santé. In Rapport médical annuel. Libreville: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1932–3.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Oubangui-Chari: Service de Santé. In Rapport annuel. Bangui: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1929–45.Google Scholar
Sautter, G. Notes sur la construction du chemin de fer Congo-Océan (1921–1934). Cah Etud Afr 1967;7:219–99.Google Scholar
Headrick, R. Colonialism, health and illness in French Equatorial Africa, 1885–1935. Atlanta: African Studies Association Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. Villes miroirs: migrations et identité urbaines à Kinshasa et Brazzaville 1930–70. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport sur l’Hygiène. Bruxelles: Congo Belge, 1932.Google Scholar
Capelle, E. La cité indigène de Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Centre d’Étude des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes, 1947.Google Scholar
Pons, V. Stanleyville: an African urban community under Belgian administration. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Verhaegen, B. Enquête démographique par sondage 1955–57: Province Orientale – District de Stanleyville – District du Haut-Uélé. Bruxelles: Les cahiers du CEDAF, 1978.Google Scholar
Verhaegen, B. Le centre extra-coutumier de Stanleyville (1940–45). Bruxelles: Les cahiers du CEDAF, 1981.Google Scholar
Close, WT. Beyond the storm: treating the powerless and the powerful in Mobutu’s Congo/Zaire. Marbleton: Meadowlark Springs Productions, 2007.Google Scholar
Comhaire-Sylvain, S. Food and leisure among the African youth of Leopoldville (Belgian Congo). Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1950.Google Scholar
Mwepu, B. La vie des femmes légères, dites ‘libres’, au centre extra-coutumier d’Elisabethville. Bulletin du Centre d’Études des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes 1951;17:175–83.Google Scholar
Bongolo, H. A propos des ‘coutumes indigènes’ qui se pratiquent à la cité indigène de Léopoldville. Bulletin du Centre d’Études des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes 1948;5:36–46.Google Scholar
Van Wing, J. La polygamie au Congo Belge. J Int Afr Inst 1947;17:93–102.Google Scholar
Liebrechts, C. Notre colonie. Bruxelles: Office de publicité, 1922.Google Scholar
La Fontaine, JS. The free women of Kinshasa: prostitution in a city of Zaire. In David, J (ed.), Essays in honour of Lucy Mair. London: Athlone Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Denis, J. Le phénomène urbain en Afrique centrale. Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, 1958.Google Scholar
Bruaux, P et al. La lutte contre les infections vénériennes à Léopoldville. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1957;37:801–13.Google Scholar
Tshingi, K. Kinshasa à l’épreuve de la désagrégation nationale. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2007.Google Scholar
Morison, L et al. Commercial sex and the spread of HIV in four cities in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS 2001;15:S61–S69.Google Scholar
Domont, JM. Élite noire. Bruxelles: Office de Publicité, 1959.Google Scholar
Ngandu, E. La prostitution ronge le Congo. Voix du Congolais 1945:209–21.Google Scholar
Mupenda, JE. Prostitution et polygamie. Voix du Congolais 1947:821–2.Google Scholar
Wassa, F. Liberté de la femme noire et prostitution. Voix du Congolais 1947:71–2.Google Scholar
Omari, AJ. Remèdes contre la prostitution. Voix du Congolais 1951:59–63.Google Scholar
Omari, AJ. Les conséquences de la prostitution sur les mariages. Voix du Congolais 1952:134–5.Google Scholar
Bolamba, AR. Les problèmes de l’évolution de la femme noire. Élisabethville: Éditions de L’Essor du Congo, 1949.Google Scholar
Mathieu, M. Monseigneur Augouard: un poitevin roi du Congo. La Crèche: Geste Éditions, 2006.Google Scholar
Ngalla, DN. Les missions catholiques et l’évolution sociale au Congo Brazzaville de 1880 à 1930 (l’oeuvre d’éducation). Brazzaville: Éditions Presse et Culture, 1993.Google Scholar
Balandier, G. Sociologie des Brazzaville noires. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1985.Google Scholar
Soret, M. Démographie et problèmes urbains en AEF: Poto-Poto–Bacongo–Dolisie. Brazzaville: Mémoires de l’Institut d’Études Centrafricaines, 1954.Google Scholar
Balandier, G. Ambiguous Africa: cultures in collision. New York: Pantheon Books, 1966.Google Scholar
Mokondzi, O et al. Halte à la prostitution. La Semaine de l’AEF, 23 July–24 September 1955.Google Scholar
Salmon, P. Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain. Biographie belge d’Outre-mer 1998;8:51.Google Scholar
Comhaire-Sylvain, S. Femmes de Kinshasa, hier et aujourd’hui. Paris: Mouton, 1968.Google Scholar
Comhaire-Sylvain, S. Les montagnards de la région de Kenscoff: une société Kongo au-delà des mers. Bandundu: CEEBA, 1984.Google Scholar
Schwarz, A. Illusion d’une émancipation et aliénation réelle de l’ouvrière zairoise. Can J Afr Stud 1972; 6:183–212.Google Scholar
Raymaekers, P. L’organisation des zones de squatting. Paris: Éditions Universitaires, 1964.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. Bisengo ya la joie. Fête, sociabilité et politique dans les capitales congolaises. In Goerg, O (ed.), Fêtes urbaines en Afrique. Paris: Karthala, 1999.Google Scholar
Yoka, L. Kinshasa, signes de vie. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999.Google Scholar
Anonyme. Congo: la prostitution se camoufle. Zaire, 13 April 1970:10–11.Google Scholar
Anonyme. L’histoire naturelle des filles de joie. Zaire 1969;42:10–15.Google Scholar
Drucker, E et al. The injection century: massive unsterile injections and the emergence of human pathogens. Lancet 2001;358:1989–92.Google Scholar
Mann, JM et al. HIV seroprevalence among hospital workers in Kinshasa, Zaire. JAMA 1986;256:3099–102.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Parenteral transmission during excision and treatment of tuberculosis and trypanosomiasis may be responsible for the HIV-2 epidemic in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 2006;20:1303–11.Google Scholar
Des Jarlais, D et al. HIV-1 infection among intravenous drug users in Manhattan, New York City. JAMA 1989;261:1008–12.Google Scholar
Robertson, JR et al. Epidemic of AIDS related virus (HTLV-III/LAV) infection among intravenous drug users. Br Med J 1986;292:527–9.Google Scholar
Angarano, G et al. Rapid spread of HTLV-III among drug addicts in Italy. Lancet 1985;ii:1302.Google Scholar
Rodrigo, JM et al. HTLV-III antibodies in drug addicts in Spain. Lancet 1985;ii:156–7.Google Scholar
Robert, CF et al. Behavioural changes in intravenous drug users in Geneva: rise and fall of HIV infection, 1980–1989. AIDS 1990;4:657–60.Google Scholar
Nicolosi, A et al. Incidence and prevalence trends of HIV infection in intravenous drug users attending treatment centers in Milan and Northern Italy. JAIDS 1992;5:365–73.Google Scholar
Choopanya, K et al. Risk factors and HIV seropositivity among injecting drug users in Bangkok. AIDS 1991;5:1509–13.Google Scholar
Emmanuel, F et al. Factors associated with an explosive HIV epidemic among injecting drug users in Sargodha, Pakistan. AIDS 2009;51:85–90.Google Scholar
Kaplan, EH et al. A model-based estimate of HIV infection via needle sharing. JAIDS 1992;5:1116–18.Google Scholar
Hudgens, MG et al. Subtype-specific transmission probabilities for HIV-1 among injecting drug users in Bangkok. Am J Epidemiol 2002;155:159–68.Google Scholar
Mathers, BM et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Lancet 2008;372:1733–45.Google Scholar
Patrascu, IV et al. HIV-1 infection in Romanian children. Lancet 1990;i:672.Google Scholar
Hersh, B et al. AIDS in Romania. Lancet 1991;338:645–9.Google Scholar
Hersh, B et al. The epidemiology of HIV and AIDS in Romania. AIDS 1991;5:S87–S92.Google Scholar
Hersh, B et al. Risk factors for HIV infection among abandoned Romanian children. AIDS 1993;7:1617–24.Google Scholar
Kozinetz, CA et al. The burden of pediatric HIV/AIDS in Constanta, Romania: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis 2001;1:7.Google Scholar
Apetrei, C et al. HIV-1 diversity in Romania. AIDS 1998;12:1079–85.Google Scholar
Mehta, SR. Using phylogeography to characterize the origins of the HIV-1 subtype F epidemic in Romania. Infect Gen Evol 2011;11:975–9.Google Scholar
Yerly, S et al. Nosocomial outbreak of multiple bloodborne viral infections. J Infect Dis 2001;184:369–72.Google Scholar
Visco-Comandini, U et al. Monophyletic HIV type 1 CRF02_AG in a nosocomial outbreak in Benghazi, Libya. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2002;18:727–32.Google Scholar
de Oliveira, T et al. HIV-1 and HCV sequences from Libyan outbreak. Nature 2006;444:836–7.Google Scholar
Bobkov, A et al. Molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 in the former Soviet Union: analysis of env V3 sequences and their correlation with epidemiologic data. AIDS 1994;8:619–24.Google Scholar
Rouet, F et al. Massive iatrogenic outbreak of HIV-1 in rural Cambodia, 2014–2015. Clin Infect Dis 2018;66:1733–44.Google Scholar
Mir, F et al. HIV infection predominantly affecting children in Sindh, Pakistan, 2019: a cross-sectional study of an outbreak. Lancet Inf Dis 2020;20:362–70.Google Scholar
Frank, C et al. The role of parenteral antischistosomal therapy in the spread of hepatitis C virus in Egypt. Lancet 2000;355:887–91.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Y et al. Exponential spread of hepatitis C virus genotype 4a in Egypt. J Mol Evol 2004;58:191–5.Google Scholar
Nerrienet, E et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Cameroon: a cohort effect. J Med Virol 2005;76:208–14.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Noble goals, unforeseen consequences: the control of tropical diseases in colonial Central Africa and the iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses. Trop Med Inter Health 2008;13:744–53.Google Scholar
Njouom, R et al. The hepatitis C virus epidemic in Cameroon: genetic evidence for rapid transmission between 1920 and 1960. Infect Gen Evol 2007;7:361–7.Google Scholar
Ndong-Atome, G et al. High prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection and predominance of genotype 4 in rural Gabon. J Med Virol 2008;80:1581–7.Google Scholar
Yazdanpanah, Y et al. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus transmission to health care workers after occupational exposure: a European case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1423–30.Google Scholar
Jagger, J et al. Occupational transmission of hepatitis C virus. JAMA 2002;288:1469–70.Google Scholar
Apetrei, C et al. Potential for HIV transmission through unsafe injections. AIDS 2006:20:1074–6.Google Scholar
Blanchard, M. Précis d’épidémiologie: médecine préventive et hygiène coloniales. Paris: Vigot, 1938.Google Scholar
Levaditi, C et al. Les ultravirus des maladies humaines. Paris: Maloine, 1948.Google Scholar
Reynes, V. Précis d’épidémiologie et prophylaxie des grandes endémies tropicales. Marseille: Éditions M. Leconte, 1950.Google Scholar
Vaucel, M. Médecine tropicale. Paris: Flammarion, 1952.Google Scholar
Bigger, JW. Jaundice in syphilitics under treatment. Lancet 1943;i:457–8.Google Scholar
Salaman, MH et al. Prevention of jaundice resulting from antisyphilitic treatment. Lancet 1944;ii:7–8.Google Scholar
Sheehan, HL. Epidemiology of infective hepatitis. Lancet 1944;ii:8–11.Google Scholar
Laird, SM. Syringe-transmitted hepatitis. Glasgow Med J 1947;28:199–219.Google Scholar
Hughes, RR. Post-penicillin jaundice. Br Med J 1946;i:685–8.Google Scholar
Thomas, RE et al. Mortality and morbidity among military personnel and civilians during the 1930s and World War II from transmission of hepatitis during yellow fever vaccination: systematic review. Am J Publ Health 2013;103:e16–e29.Google Scholar
Seeff, L et al. A serologic follow-up of the 1942 epidemic of post-vaccination hepatitis in the United States army. N Eng J Med 1987;316:965–70.Google Scholar
Harris, SH. Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932–1945, and the American cover-up. New York: Routledge, 2002.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, AJ. Syringe-transmitted hepatitis. Br Med J 1978;ii;696.Google Scholar
Ledentu, . Cours technique des infirmiers de l’Assistance Médicale Indigène. Paris: Agence Économique de l’Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1931.Google Scholar
Deroo, R et al. L’école du Pharo: cent ans de médecine outre-mer, 1905–2005. Le Prouet: Lavauzelle, 2005.Google Scholar
Eyidi, MB. Le vainqueur de la maladie du sommeil: le Docteur Eugène Jamot (1879–1937). Paris: n.p., 1950.Google Scholar
Lapeyssonie, L. Moi, Jamot, le vainqueur de la maladie du sommeil. Bruxelles: Éditions Louis Musin, 1987.Google Scholar
Bado, JP. Eugène Jamot 1879–1937: le médecin de la maladie du sommeil ou trypanosomiase. Paris: Karthala, 2011.Google Scholar
Jamot, E. Essai de prophylaxie médicale de la maladie du sommeil dans l’Oubangui-Chari. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1920;13:343–76.Google Scholar
Winterbottom, TM. An account of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, to which is added an account of the present state of medicine among them. London: John Hatchard, 1803.Google Scholar
Kérandel, J. Un cas de trypanosomiase chez un médecin (auto-observation). Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1910;3:644–62.Google Scholar
Kuhn, P. Die geschichte der schlafkrankheil in Kamerun und ihre lehren. Zeitschr Hygiene 1916;81:69–137.Google Scholar
Cameroun Français. Service de Santé & Services de santé publique. In Rapport annuel. Yaoundé: Cameroun Français, 1936, 1939–51, 1955–9.Google Scholar
Moyen-Congo [Colonie du; Territoire du]. Rapport annuel. Brazzavillle: Moyen-Congo, 1930–34, 1945, 1947–54, 1955–8.Google Scholar
Oubangui-Chari [Colonie de l’; Territoire de l’]. Service de Santé & Direction de la santé publique. In Rapport annuel. Bangui: Oubangui-Chari, 1932, 1933, 1945–8, 1950–7, 1959.Google Scholar
Gabon [Colonie du; Territoire du]. Service de Santé. In Rapport annuel. Libreville: Gabon, 1931–3, 1945, 1947–50, 1952–7.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Rapport médical sur le fonctionnement durant l’année 1935 des services sanitaires et médicaux civils de l’Afrique Équatoriale Française. Brazzaville: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1936.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Inspection Générale des Services Sanitaires et Médicaux. In Rapport Annuel. Brazzaville: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1936–44.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Direction Générale de la Santé Publique. In Rapport Annuel. Brazzaville: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1945–56.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. Service Général d’Hygiène Mobile et de Prophylaxie de l’Afrique Équatoriale Française. In Rapport annuel. Brazzaville: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1947–58.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel adressé par le gouvernement français au conseil de la Société des Nations conformément à l’article 22 du pacte sur l’administration sous mandat du territoire du Cameroun pour l’année. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1921–38.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel du gouvernement français aux Nations-Unies sur l’administration du Cameroun placé sous la tutelle de la France. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1947–57.Google Scholar
Rousseau, ; Hermant, ; Ledentu, ; Lefèvre, ; Marque, ; Grosfillez, ; Peltier, ; Vogel, ; Le Rouzic, ; Riou, (1927–38). Les maladies transmissibles observées dans les colonies françaises et territoires sous mandat. Ann Med Pharm Col. www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/periodiques.phpGoogle Scholar
Ministère de la France d’Outre-Mer. Direction du Service de Santé. In Statistique médicale de l’année. Paris: Ministère de la France d’Outre-Mer, 1946–9.Google Scholar
Ministère de la France d’Outre-Mer. Situation médicale des territoires français d’outre-mer. Paris: Ministère de la France d’Outre-Mer, 1950–6.Google Scholar
Jamot, E. La maladie du sommeil au Cameroun en janvier 1929. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1929;22:473–96.Google Scholar
Muraz, G. État actuel des traitements chimiothérapiques de la maladie du sommeil. In Les grandes endémies tropicales. Paris: Vigot Frères, 1936.Google Scholar
Vamos, S. Traitement de trypanosomés dans un secteur du Moyen-Chari (AEF): étude de 3705 observations. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1936;29:1015–22.Google Scholar
Millous, P. Le traitement de la maladie du sommeil au Cameroun. Ann Med Pharm Col 1936;34:966–95.Google Scholar
Jamot, E. La lutte contre la maladie du sommeil au Cameroun. Ann Instit Past 1932;48:481–539.Google Scholar
Vaucel, M. État de la maladie du sommeil au Cameroun en 1939. Ann Instit Past 1941;67:189–215.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Noble goals, unforeseen consequences: the control of tropical diseases in colonial Central Africa and the iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses. Trop Med Inter Health 2008;13:744–53.Google Scholar
Lachenal, G. Le médicament qui allait sauver l’Afrique: une anthropologie de la bêtise coloniale. Paris: La Découverte, 2014.Google Scholar
Waddy, BB. Chemoprophylaxis of human trypanosomiasis. In Mulligan, HW and Potts, WH (eds), The African trypanosomiases. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970.Google Scholar
Richet, P. Quelques considérations sur la chimio-prophylaxie de la trypanosomiase humaine en AEF. Fifth meeting of the International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research, Pretoria, 13–17 September 1954:72–84.Google Scholar
Haut Commissariat de la République en Afrique Équatoriale Française. Rapport 707/DGSP. Brazzaville: Haut Commissariat de la République en Afrique Équatoriale Française, 22 April 1953.Google Scholar
Cartron, A. Le pian et sa répartition dans les colonies françaises: considérations étiologiques, cliniques, sérologiques thérapeutiques et prophylactiques. Ann Med Pharm Col 1937;35:5–73.Google Scholar
Vaucel, MA. Le pian dans les territoires français. Bull World Health Organ 1953;8:183–204.Google Scholar
Joyeux, C. Précis de médecine tropicale. Paris: Masson, 1944.Google Scholar
Montel, M. Mémento thérapeutique du praticien colonial. Paris: Masson, 1945.Google Scholar
Vaucel, M. Médecine Tropicale. Paris: Flammarion, 1952.Google Scholar
Richet, P. Une question d’actualité: la maladie de Hansen en AEF. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1954;34:589–602.Google Scholar
Gaud, J. Les bilharzioses en Afrique occidentale et en Afrique centrale. Bull World Health Organ 1955;13:209–58.Google Scholar
Brunel, M. La tuberculose pulmonaire au Cameroun en 1958, endémie tuberculeuse, formes cliniques, traitement prophylaxie. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1958;51:920–35.Google Scholar
Echenberg, M. For their own good: the Pasteur Institute and the quest for an anti-yellow fever vaccine in French Colonial Africa. In Bado, JP (ed.), Conquêtes médicales: histoire de la médecine moderne et des maladies en Afrique. Paris: Karthala, 2005.Google Scholar
Direccion general de marruecos y colonias. Seccion de estadistica de la delegacion del trabajo del gobierno general de los territorios espanoles del golfo de Guinea. Resumenes de los anos, 1944–53.Google Scholar
Alonso, C. Diferentes aspectos de la tripanosomiasis africana (su importancia en Africa y Guinea ecuatorial espanola). Med Trop (Madr) 1966;42:157–83.Google Scholar
Vicente, G et al. Importancia de las grandes enfermedades transmisibles en la sanidad publica de Guinea ecuatorial y su relacion con las grandes campanas de masas. Med Trop (Madr) 1968; 44:282–97.Google Scholar
Moudgil, K et al. Global overview of the prevalence of hepatitis B virus markers (HBsAg and anti-HBs) in leprosy patients. Trop Gastroenterol 1988;9:184–90.Google Scholar
Verdier, M et al. Antibodies to human T lymphotropic virus type 1 in patients with leprosy in tropical areas. J Infect Dis 1990;161:1309–10.Google Scholar
Denis, F et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus among patients with leprosy in several African countries and the Yemen. J Med Virol 1994;43:1–4.Google Scholar
Moraes Braga, A et al. Leprosy and confinement due to leprosy show high association with hepatitis C in Southern Brazil. Acta Trop 2006;97:88–93.Google Scholar
Louis, F et al. Grandes variations de la prévalence de l’infection par le virus C des hépatites en Afrique centrale. Med Trop (Mars) 1994;54:277–8.Google Scholar
Kowo, M et al. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus and other blood-borne viruses in Pygmies and neighbouring Bantus in southern Cameroon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995;89:484–6.Google Scholar
Delaporte, E et al. Seroepidemiological survey of HTLV-I infection among randomized populations of western central African countries. JAIDS 1989;2:410–13.Google Scholar
Hay, S et al. Annual Plasmodium falciparum entomological inoculation rates across Africa: literature survey, internet access and review. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000;94:113–27.Google Scholar
Hay, S et al. Urbanization, malaria transmission and disease burden in Africa. Nature Rev 2005;3:81–90.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. HCV transmission during medical interventions and traditional practices in colonial Cameroon: potential implications for the emergence of HIV-1. Clin Infect Dis 2010:51:768–76.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Iatrogenic transmission of human retrovirus HTLV-1 and of hepatitis C virus through parenteral treatment and chemoprophylaxis of sleeping sickness in colonial Equatorial Africa. Clin Infect Dis 2010;51:777–84.Google Scholar
Njouom, R et al. The burden of hepatitis C virus in Cameroon: spatial epidemiology and historical perspective. J Vir Hep 2018; 25:959–68.Google Scholar
Schwetz, J. L’évolution de la médecine au Congo Belge. Bruxelles: Office de Publicité, 1946.Google Scholar
Fédération pour la défense des intérêts belges à l’étranger. L’assistance médicale dans l’État Indépendant du Congo. Bruxelles: Bulens Frères, 1907.Google Scholar
Rodhain, J. La maladie du sommeil dans l’Ouellé. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1916;9:38–72.Google Scholar
Schwetz, J. Rapport sur les travaux de la mission médicale antitrypanosomique du Kwango-Kasaï 1920–1923. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1924;4:1–138.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport annuel de la direction générale des services médicaux du Congo Belge. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1958.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport sur l’Hygiène. Bruxelles: Congo Belge, 1940–9.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport sur l’Hygiène. Bruxelles: Congo Belge, 1924–30.Google Scholar
David, J. Vade-mecum à l’usage des infirmiers et des assistants médicaux indigènes. Bruxelles: Vromant & Co., 1931.Google Scholar
Chesterman, C. Manuel du dispensaire tropical. London: Lutterworth Press, 1947.Google Scholar
Gillet, J et al. Les bilharzioses humaines au Congo Belge et au Ruanda-Urundi. Bull World Health Organ 1954;10:315–419.Google Scholar
Dubois, A. La lèpre au Congo Belge en 1938. Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique, 1940.Google Scholar
Kivits, M. La lutte contre la lèpre au Congo belge en 1955. Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, 1956.Google Scholar
Gillet, J. Atlas général du Congo et du Ruanda-Urundi. Carte nosologique et notice de la carte nosologique du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Bruxelles: Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 1954.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport des services médicaux. Bruxelles: Congo Belge, 1958.Google Scholar
Duren, A. La santé des Européens au Congo. Arch Med Soc Hyg 1940;3:385–97.Google Scholar
Mense. Rapport de l’état sanitaire de Léopoldville de novembre 1885 à mars 1887. Bruxelles: Publications de l’État Indépendant du Congo, 1888.Google Scholar
Pierquin, L. Historique du Laboratoire Médical de l’Institut de Médecine Tropicale Princesse Astrid à Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Graphicongo, 1958.Google Scholar
Whyms. Les services médicaux et sanitaires de Léopoldville. Bruxelles: Office de Publicité, 1952.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L. Immunité et guérison spontanée de singes cercopithèques infectés par Trypanosoma gambiense. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1934:27:167–9.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L et al. Guérisons spontanées, état réfractaire et immunité des singes pour certains trypanosomes pathogènes. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1937;30:727–37.Google Scholar
Peel, E et al. Sur des filaridés de chimpanzés Pan paniscus et Pan satyrus au Congo Belge. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1946;26:117–56.Google Scholar
Arnaud. Vaccin antigonococcique actif contre l’écoulement. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1934;14:5–6.Google Scholar
Brutsaert, P. La méningite cérébrospinale au Katanga (Congo Belge): résultats de la vaccination prophylactique et de la sérothérapie anti-méningocociques obtenus à l’Union Minière du Haut-Katanga. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1931;11:11–39.Google Scholar
Anonyme. Le laboratoire de Léopoldville. Congo Illustré 1941:5–9.Google Scholar
Dedet, JP. Les Instituts Pasteur d’outre-mer: cent vingt ans de microbiologie française dans le monde. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2002.Google Scholar
Bosmans, E et al. Laboratoires médicaux et d’hygiène. In Janssens, PG (ed.), Médecine et hygiène en Afrique centrale de 1885 à nos jours. Bruxelles: Fondation Roi Beaudoin, 1992.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Province Orientale: service médical. Rapport annuel. Stanleyville: Congo Belge, 1952–7.Google Scholar
Thomas, AC. Hommage au Docteur L. Van Hoof. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1954;34:559–67.Google Scholar
Duren, A. Lucien Van Hoof. Bulletin des Séances de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge 1949;20:147–54.Google Scholar
Kivits, M. Lucien Van Hoof. Biographie belge d’outre-mer 1968:6:503.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L. Note préliminaire sur la fièvre récurrente parmi les troupes belges coloniales dans l’Est Africain Allemand. Bull Soc Patho Exot 1917;10:786–91.Google Scholar
Janssens, E. Histoire de la Force Publique. Bruxelles: Ghesquière, 1979.Google Scholar
File Lucien Van Hoof. Archives Africaines, Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L. Observations on trypanosomiasis in the Belgian Congo. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1947;40:728–54.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L et al. Chimioprophylaxie de la maladie du sommeil par la pentamidine. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1946;26:371–84.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L et al. Pentamidine in the prevention and treatment of trypanosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1944;37:271–80.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L et al. A field experiment on the prophylactic value of pentamidine in sleeping sickness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1946;39:327–9.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, L et al. Sur la chimiothérapie de l’onchocercose (note préliminaire). Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1947;27:173–7.Google Scholar
Colebunders, RL et al. HIV infection in patients with tuberculosis in Kinshasa, Zaire. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:1082–5.Google Scholar
Mouchet, R. Le problème de la tuberculose humaine en Afrique tropicale et spécialement au Congo Belge. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1937;17:509–54.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Service d’Hygiène du District Urbain de Léopoldville. Rapport Annuel. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1949–51, 1956–8.Google Scholar
Various files. Archives Africaines, Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Michiels, A. L’oeuvre de la Croix-Rouge au Congo belge. Bruxelles: Université Libre de Bruxelles, 2000.Google Scholar
Dubois, A. La Croix-Rouge du Congo. Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences d’Outre-Mer, 1969.Google Scholar
Croix Rouge du Congo. Rapport annuel. Bruxelles: Croix Rouge du Congo, 1929–59.Google Scholar
Files Croix-Rouge du Congo. Archives générales du Royaume de Belgique, Bruxelles.Google Scholar
Schneider, WH. The history of blood transfusion in sub-Saharan Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Pépin, J. The expansion of HIV-1 in colonial Leopoldville, 1950s: driven by STDs or STD control? Sex Transm Infect 2012:88:307–12.Google Scholar
Beheyt, P. Contribution à l’étude des hépatites en Afrique: l’hépatite épidémique et l’hépatite par inoculation. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1953;33:297–340.Google Scholar
Institut d’Hygiène Marcel Wanson. Rapport Annuel. Léopoldville: Institut d’Hygiène Marcel Wanson, 1956.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Rapport des Services Médicaux de la Province de Léopoldville. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1957.Google Scholar
Congo Belge. Service d’Hygiène du District Urbain de Léopoldville. Rapport Annuel. Léopoldville: Congo Belge, 1958.Google Scholar
Hogan, C et al. Epidemic history and iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses in mid-29th century Kinshasa. J Infect Dis 2016;214:353–60.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 2008;55:661–4.Google Scholar
De Leys, R et al. Isolation and partial characterization of an unusual human immunodeficiency retrovirus from two persons of west-central African origin. J Virol 1990;64:1207–16.Google Scholar
Peeters, M et al. Geographical distribution of HIV-1 group O viruses in Africa. AIDS 1997;11:493–8.Google Scholar
Ayouba, A et al. HIV-1 group O infection in Cameroon, 1986–1998. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:466–7.Google Scholar
Villabona-Arenas, CJ et al. HIV-1 group O in Cameroon from 2006 to 2013: prevalence, genetic diversity, evolution and public health challenges. Infect Gen Evol 2015; 36:210–16.Google Scholar
Lemey, P et al. The molecular population genetics of HIV-1 group O. Genetics 2004;167:1059–68.Google Scholar
Leoz, M et al. The two-phase emergence of non-pandemic HIV-1 group O in Cameroon. PLoS Pathogens 2015;11:e1005029.Google Scholar
Liégeois, F et al. HIV type-1 group O infection in Gabon: low prevalence rate but circulation of genetically diverse and drug-resistant HIV type-1 group O strains. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2013;29:1085–90.Google Scholar
Simon, F et al. Identification of a new HIV-1 distinct from group M and group O. Nat Med 1998;4:1032–7.Google Scholar
Yamaguchi, J et al. Identification of HIV-1 group N infections in a husband and wife in Cameroon: viral genome sequences provide evidence for horizontal transmission. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2006;22:83–92.Google Scholar
Neel, C. Molecular epidemiology of simian immunodeficiency virus infection in wild-living gorillas. J Virol 2010;84:1464–76.Google Scholar
D’arc, M et al. Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2015;112:e1343-52.Google Scholar
Plantier, JC et al. A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas. Nature Med 2009;15:871–2.Google Scholar
Vallari, A et al. Confirmation of putative HIV-1 group P in Cameroon. J Virol 2011;85:1403–7.Google Scholar
Van Heuverswyn, F et al. Genetic diversity and phylogeographic clustering of SIVcpzPtt in wild chimpanzees in Cameroon. Virology 2007;368:155–71.Google Scholar
Keele, BF et al. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1. Science 2006;323:523–6.Google Scholar
Yang, SJ et al. Lack of adaptation to human tetherin in HIV-1 group O and P. Retrovirology 2011; 8:78.Google Scholar
Clavel, F et al. Isolation of a new human retrovirus from West African patients with AIDS. Science 1986;233:343–46.Google Scholar
Clavel, F et al. HIV-2 infection associated with AIDS in West Africa. N Eng J Med 1987;316:1180–5.Google Scholar
Hirsch, V et al. An African primate lentivirus (SIVsm) closely related to HIV-2. Nature 1989;339:389–91.Google Scholar
Gao, F et al. Human infection by genetically diverse SIVsm–related HIV-2 in West Africa. Nature 1992;358:495–9.Google Scholar
Santiago, ML et al. Simian immunodeficiency virus infection in free-ranging sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys atys) from the Tai forest, Côte d’Ivoire: implications for the origin of epidemic HIV-2. J Virol 2005;79:12515–27.Google Scholar
Chen, Z et al. Genetic characterization of new West African SIVsm: geographic clustering of household-derived SIV strains with HIV-2 subtypes and genetically diverse viruses from a single feral sooty mangabey troop. J Virol 1996;70:3617–27.Google Scholar
Chen, Z et al. HIV-2 seroprevalence and characterization of a distinct HIV-2 subtype from the natural range of SIV-infected sooty mangabey. J Virol 1997;71:3953–60.Google Scholar
Poulsen, AG et al. Prevalence of and mortality from HIV-2 in Bissau, West Africa. Lancet 1989;i:827–31.Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. HIV/AIDS surveillance data base. www.census.gov/programs-surveys/international-programs/about/hiv.htmlGoogle Scholar
Davidson, B. No fist is big enough to hide the sky: the liberation of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, 1963–1974. London: Zed Books, 1981.Google Scholar
Dhada, M. Warriors at work: how Guinea was really set free. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Poulsen, AG et al. 9-year HIV-2 associated mortality in an urban community in Bissau, west Africa. Lancet 1997;349:911–14.Google Scholar
Ricard, D et al. The effects of HIV-2 in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1994;8:977–82.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, GS et al. Lower levels of HIV-1 RNA in semen in HIV-2 compared with HIV-1 infection: implications for differences in transmission. AIDS 2006;20:895–900.Google Scholar
Ghys, P et al. The association between cervicovaginal HIV shedding, sexually transmitted diseases and immunosuppression in female sex workers in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. AIDS 1997;11:F85–F93.Google Scholar
Poulsen, AG et al. Risk factors of HIV-2 seropositivity among older people in Guinea-Bissau: a search for the early history of HIV-2 infection. Scand J Infect Dis 2000;32:169–75.Google Scholar
Wilkins, A et al. The epidemiology of HIV infection in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1993;7:1119–22.Google Scholar
Larsen, O et al. Declining HIV-2 prevalence and incidence among men in a community study from Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 1998;12:1707–14.Google Scholar
Holmgren, B et al. Dual infections with HIV-1, HIV-2 and HTLV-I are more common in older women than in men in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 2003;17:241–53.Google Scholar
Da Silva, ZJ et al. Changes in prevalence and incidence of HIV-1, HIV-2 and dual infections in urban areas of Bissau, Guinea-Bissau: is HIV-2 disappearing? AIDS 2008;22:1195–202.Google Scholar
Olesen, JS et al. HIV-2 continues to decrease, whereas HIV-1 is stabilizing in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS 2018;32:1193–8.Google Scholar
Borges Coelho, JP. African troops in the Portuguese colonial army, 1961–1974: Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Portuguese Stud Rev 2002:10:129–50.Google Scholar
Spiegel, P et al. Prevalence of HIV infection in conflict affected and displaced people in seven sub-Saharan countries: a systematic review. Lancet 1997;369:2187–95.Google Scholar
Supervie, V et al. Assessing the impact of mass rape on the incidence of HIV in conflict-affected countries. AIDS 2010;24:2481–7.Google Scholar
Gomes, P et al. Transmission of HIV-2. Lancet Infect Dis 2003;3:683–4.Google Scholar
Piedade, J. Longstanding presence of HIV-2 in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Acta Trop 2000;76:119–24.Google Scholar
Bryceson, A et al. HIV-2 associated AIDS in the 1970s. Lancet 1988;ii:221.Google Scholar
Saimot, AG et al. HIV-2/LAV-2 in Portuguese man with AIDS (Paris, 1978) who had served in Angola in 1968–74. Lancet 1987:i:688.Google Scholar
Ancelle, R et al. Long incubation period for HIV-2 infection. Lancet 1987:i:688–9.Google Scholar
Mota-Miranda, A et al. HIV-2 infection with a long asymptomatic report. J Infect 1995;31:163–4.Google Scholar
Lemey, P et al. Tracing the origin and history of the HIV-2 epidemic. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:6588–92.Google Scholar
Wertheim, JO et al. Dating the age of the SIV lineages that gave rise to HIV-1 and HIV-2. PLoS Comput Biol 2009;5:e1000377.Google Scholar
de Silva, T et al. Population dynamics of HIV-2 in rural West Africa: comparison with HIV-1 and ongoing transmission at the heart of the epidemic. AIDS 2013;27:125–34.Google Scholar
Mansson, F et al. Trends of HIV-1 and HIV-2 prevalence among pregnant women in Guinea-Bissau, west Africa: possible effect of the civil war 1998–1999. Sex Transm Infect 2007;83:463–7.Google Scholar
Ferreira, FS. História da doença do sono na Guiné Portuguesa: VII- período de 1947 a 1956. Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa 1961;16:569–606.Google Scholar
Carreira, A. Mandingas da Guiné Portuguesa. Lisboa: Centre de Estudos da Guiné Portuguesa, 1947.Google Scholar
Johnson, MC. Becoming a Muslim, becoming a person: female circumcision, religious identity, and personhood in Guinea-Bissau. In Shell-Duncan, B and Hernlund, Y (eds), Female circumcision in Africa: culture, controversy and change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. Noble goals, unforeseen consequences: the control of tropical diseases in colonial Central Africa and the iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses. Trop Med Inter Health 2008:13:744–53.Google Scholar
Ferreira, FS. História da doença do sono na Guiné Portuguesa: IV-período de 1927 a 1932. Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa 1961;16:139–57.Google Scholar
Ferreira, FS. História da doença do sono na Guiné Portuguesa: V- período de 1933 a 1946. Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa 1961;16:313–47.Google Scholar
Pinto, AR. Relatório sobre a actividade da missão permanente de estudo e combate da doença do sono e outros endemas na Guiné Portuguesa: referente ao ano de 1955. An Inst Med Trop (Lisb) 1956;13:275–332.Google Scholar
Pinto, AR. Relatório anual da missão permanente de estudo e combate da doença do sono e outros endemas na Guiné Portuguesa (1958). An Inst Med Trop (Lisb) 1960;17:817–905.Google Scholar
Pinto, AR et al. La lutte contre la lèpre en Guinée Portuguaise. Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa 1959,14:603–32.Google Scholar
Walker, T. Abolishing the slave trade in Portuguese India: documentary evidence of popular and official resistance to crown policy, 1842–60. Slavery Abolition 2004;25:63–79.Google Scholar
Pescatello, AM. The African presence in Portuguese India. J Afr Hist 1977;11:26–48.Google Scholar
Borges Coelho, JP. African troops in the Portuguese colonial army, 1961–1974: Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Portuguese Stud Rev 2002:10:129–50.Google Scholar
Da Cruz Rodrigues, F. Antigos combatentes africanos das forças armadas portuguesas: a guerra colonial como territorio de (re)conciliaçao. Universidade de Coimbra, 2012.Google Scholar
Jadhav, S et al. Molecular phylogenetics of nearly full-length HIV type 2 envelope gene sequences from West India. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2009;25:115–21.Google Scholar
Bezy, F. Principes pour l’organisation du développement économique au Congo. Zaire 1959;13:3–55.Google Scholar
Romaniuk, A. Démographie congolaise au milieu du XXe siècle. Louvain: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 2006.Google Scholar
Gondola, C. The history of Congo. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Schwers, GA. Quand y aura-t-il des médecins noirs en Afrique centrale. Bulletin du Centre d’Études des Problèmes Sociaux Indigènes 1952;19:91–111.Google Scholar
MacGaffey, G et al. US Army area handbook for the Republic of Congo (Leopoldville). Washington: American University, 1962.Google Scholar
Ndaywel è Nziem, I. Histoire générale du Congo: de l’héritage ancien à la République Démocratique. Paris: Duculot, 1996.Google Scholar
Bouvier, P. L’accession du Congo belge à l’indépendance: essai d’analyse sociologique. Bruxelles: Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1965.Google Scholar
Ministère des Affaires Africaines. La situation économique du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1959. Bruxelles: Ministère des Affaires Africaines, 1960.Google Scholar
Gordon, K. The United Nations in the Congo: a quest for peace. Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1962.Google Scholar
Willame, JC. Patrice Lumumba: la crise congolaise revisitée. Paris: Karthala, 1990.Google Scholar
Gérard-Libois, J. Sécession au Katanga. Bruxelles: CRISP, 1963.Google Scholar
De Witte, L. The assasination of Lumumba. London: Verso, 2001.Google Scholar
Huybrechts, A. Du Congo au Zaire, 1960–1980: essai de bilan. Bruxelles: CRISP, 1980.Google Scholar
House, A. The UN in the Congo: the political and civilian efforts. Washington: University Press of America, 1978.Google Scholar
Gendebien, PH. L’intervention des Nations Unies au Congo, 1960–1964. Paris: Mouton, 1967.Google Scholar
Centre de Recherche et d’information socio-politique. Congo 1963. Bruxelles: CRISP, 1964.Google Scholar
Fullerton. L’UNESCO au Congo. Paris: UNESCO, 1964.Google Scholar
Dartigue, E. An outstanding Haitian: Maurice Dartigue. New York: Vantage Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Jackson, RO. The failure of categories: Haitians in the United Nations Organization in the Congo, 1960–1964. J Haitian Stud 2014;20:34–64.Google Scholar
Kuyu, C. Les Haitiens au Congo. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2006.Google Scholar
Kuyu, C., personal communication.Google Scholar
République démocratique du Congo. Étude socio-démographique de Kinshasa 1967. Kinshasa: République démocratique du Congo, 1969.Google Scholar
Verhaegen, B. Femmes zairoises de Kisangani: combats pour la survie. Louvain-la-Neuve: Centre d’Histoire de l’Afrique, 1990.Google Scholar
Vanthemsche, G. Belgium and the Congo 1884–1980. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Sonnet, J et al. Early AIDS cases originating from Zaire and Burundi (1962–1976). Scand J Infect Dis 1987;19:511–17.Google Scholar
Kolonga Molei. Kinshasa, ce village d’hier. Kinshasa: Kolonga Molei, 1979.Google Scholar
Anonyme Leopoldville 1942. U.S. troops upgrade Ndolo airport. http://kosubaawate.blogspot.ca/2011/05/leopoldville-1942-us-troops-expand.htmlGoogle Scholar
Findlay, T. The Blue Helmets’ first war? Use of force by the UN in the Congo, 1960–64. Clementsport: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Spooner, KA. Canada, the Congo crisis, and the UN peacekeeping, 1960–64. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2009.Google Scholar
CDC. Opportunistic infections and Kaposi’s sarcoma among Haitians in the United States. MMWR 1982;31:353–61.Google Scholar
Vieira, J et al. Opportunistic infections in previously healthy Haitian immigrants. N Eng J Med 1983; 308:125–9.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, LB et al. Unusual cause of death in Haitians residing in Miami: high prevalence of opportunistic infections. JAMA 1983;250:1187–91.Google Scholar
Malebranche, R et al. Acquired immunodeficiencies syndrome with severe gastrointestinal manifestations in Haiti. Lancet 1983;ii:873–8.Google Scholar
Pitchenik, A. Opportunistic infections and Kaposi’s sarcoma among Haitians: evidence of a new acquired immunodeficiency state. Ann Int Med 1983;98:277–84.Google Scholar
Laverdière, M et al. AIDS in Haitian immigrants and in a Caucasian woman closely associated with Haitians. Can Med Assoc J 1983;129:1209–12.Google Scholar
Farmer, P. AIDS and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Jaffe, H. AIDS in the United States: the first 1000 cases. J Infect Dis 1983;148:339–45.Google Scholar
Boncy, M et al. Acquired immunodeficiency in Haitians. N Eng J Med 1983;308:1419–20.Google Scholar
Greco, R. Haiti and the stigma of AIDS. Lancet 1983;ii:515–16.Google Scholar
Stanford, JD. Spartacus internation gay guide 1982. Amsterdam: Spartacus, 1982.Google Scholar
Stanford, JD. Spartacus 85: guide for gay men. Amsterdam: Spartacus, 1985.Google Scholar
Péan, LJR. Haiti, économie politique de la corruption. IV: l’ensauvagement macoute et ses conséquences 1957–1990. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2007.Google Scholar
Comhaire-Sylvain, S. Les montagnards de la région de Kenscoff: une société Kongo au-delà des mers. Bandundu: CEEBA, 1984.Google Scholar
Gold, H. Best nightmare on Earth: a life in Haiti. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1991.Google Scholar
d’Adesky, AC. Silence+death = AIDS in Haiti. The Advocate 1991;577:30–4.Google Scholar
Altema, R et al. Only homosexual Haitians, not all Haitians. Ann Int Med 1983;99:877–8.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. Characteristics of AIDS in Haiti. N Eng J Med 1983;309:945–50.Google Scholar
Barry, M et al. Haiti and the AIDS connection. J Chron Dis 1984;37:593–5.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. AIDS in Haiti: 1982–1992. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:S341–S345.Google Scholar
Mitacek, E et al. Cancer in Haiti 1979–84: distribution of various forms of cancer according to geographical area and sex. Int J Cancer 1986;38:9–16.Google Scholar
Liautaud, B et al. Le sarcome de Kaposi en Haiti: foyer méconnu ou récemment apparu. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1983;110:213–19.Google Scholar
Thijs, A. L’angiosarcomatose de Kaposi au Congo belge et au Rwanda-Urundi. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1957:37:295–311.Google Scholar
Hymes, K et al. Kaposi’s sarcoma in homosexual men: a report of eight cases. Lancet 1981;ii:598–600.Google Scholar
Urmacher, C et al. Outbreak of Kaposi’s sarcoma with cytomegalovirus infection in young homosexual men. Am J Med 1982;74:569–75.Google Scholar
Selik, RM et al. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) trends in the United States, 1978–1982. Am J Med 1984;76:493–500.Google Scholar
Beral, V et al. Kaposi’s sarcoma among persons with AIDS: a sexually transmitted infection? Lancet 1990;335:123–8.Google Scholar
Noel, G. Another case of AIDS in the pre-AIDS era. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10:668–9.Google Scholar
Johnson, W et al. AIDS in Haiti. In Levy, J (ed.), AIDS: pathogenesis and treatment. New York: Dekker, 1989.Google Scholar
Korber, B et al. Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science 2000;288:1789–96.Google Scholar
Gilbert, M. The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007; 104:18566–70.Google Scholar
Robbins, K et al. US HIV-1 epidemic: date of origin, population history, and characterization of early strains. J Virol 2003;77:6359–66.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. The epidemiology of AIDS in Haiti refutes the claims of Gilbert. et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:E13.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Reply to Pape et al: the phylogeography of HIV-1 group M subtype B. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:E16.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. 1970s and ‘Patient 0’ HIV-1 genomes illuminate early HIV/AIDS history in North America. Nature 2016;539:98–101.Google Scholar
Boulos, R et al. HIV-1 in Haitian women, 1982–88. JAIDS 1990;3:721–8.Google Scholar
Cuthbertson, B et al. Safety of albumin preparations manufactured from plasma not tested for HIV antibody. Lancet 1987;ii:41.Google Scholar
Cuthbertson, B et al. The viral safety of intravenous immunoglobulin. J Infect 1987;15:125–33.Google Scholar
Dreskin, CA et al. Plasmapheresis-associated hepatitis A outbreak. MMWR 1974;23:275–6.Google Scholar
Muss, N et al. Epidemic outbreak of non-A non-B hepatitis in a plasmapheresis center: I. Epidemiological observations. Infection 1985;113:57–60.Google Scholar
Drug Industry Document Archive. http://dida.library.ucsf.eduGoogle Scholar
Avila, C et al. The epidemiology of HIV transmission among paid plasma donors, Mexico City, Mexico. AIDS 1989;3:631–3.Google Scholar
Volkow, P et al. Plasma trade and the HIV epidemic. Lancet 1997;349:327–8.Google Scholar
Banerjee, K et al. Outbreak of HIV seropositivity among commercial plasma donors in Pune, India. Lancet 1989;ii:166.Google Scholar
Wu, Z et al. Prevalence of HIV infection among former commercial plasma donors in rural eastern China. Health Policy Plan 2001;16:41–6.Google Scholar
Ji, G et al. Correlates of HIV infection among former blood/plasma donors in rural China. AIDS 2006;20:585–91.Google Scholar
Ferguson, J. Papa Doc, Baby Doc: Haiti and the Duvaliers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987.Google Scholar
Severo, R. Impoverished Haitians sell plasma for use in the US. New York Times, 28 January 1972.Google Scholar
Sapène, R. Procès à Baby Doc. Paris: Philippe Daudy, 1973.Google Scholar
Heinl, RD et al. Written in blood: the story of the Haitian people 1492–1995. Lanham: University Press of America, 1996.Google Scholar
Starr, D. Blood: an epic history of medicine and commerce. New York: Harper Collins, 2002.Google Scholar
US National Archives. ARC identifier 4692719. File 75D391 FN 9, Foreign Investment Hemo Caribbean.Google Scholar
Deschamps, MM et al. HIV infection in Haiti: natural history and disease progression. AIDS 2000;14:2515–21.Google Scholar
CDC. Opportunistic infections and Kaposi’s sarcoma among Haitians in the United States. MMWR 1982;31:353–61.Google Scholar
Vieira, J et al. Opportunistic infections in previously healthy Haitian immigrants. N Eng J Med 1983;308:125–9.Google Scholar
Malebranche, R et al. Acquired immunodeficiencies syndrome with severe gastrointestinal manifestations in Haiti. Lancet 1983;ii:873–8.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. Characteristics of AIDS in Haiti. N Eng J Med 1983;309:945–50.Google Scholar
Stanford, JD. Spartacus international gay guide 1982. Amsterdam: Spartacus, 1982.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Haiti. Ann Int Med 1985;103:674–8.Google Scholar
The Collaborative Study Group of AIDS in Haitian-Americans. Risk factors for AIDS among Haitians residing in the United States. JAMA 1987;257:635–9.Google Scholar
Boulos, R et al. HIV-1 in Haitian women, 1982–88. JAIDS 1990;3:721–8.Google Scholar
Pape, J et al. Prevalence of HIV infection and high-risk activities in Haiti. JAIDS 1990;3:995–1001.Google Scholar
Farmer, P. Infections and inequalities: the modern plagues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Levine, PH. HIV infection in hemophilia. J Clin Apher 1993;8:120–5.Google Scholar
Kroner, BL et al. HIV-1 infection incidence among persons with hemophilia in the United States and Western Europe, 1978–1990. JAIDS 1994;7:279–86.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, RJG et al. Five year prospective study of HIV infection in the Edinburgh haemophiliac cohort. Br Med J 1990;301:956–61.Google Scholar
Eyster, ME et al. Development and early natural history of HTLV-III antibodies in persons with hemophilia. JAMA 1985:253:2219–23.Google Scholar
Ragni, MV et al. 1986 update of HIV seroprevalence, seroconversion, AIDS incidence, and immunologic correlates of HIV infection in patients with hemophilia A and B. Blood 1987;70:786–90.Google Scholar
Fatkenheuer, G et al. Marchands de sang. Lausanne: Pierre-Marcel Favre, 1986.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. International plasma trafficking. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2000;75:289–96.Google Scholar
Picard, A. Blood trail: Canada still lacks controls on plasma trade, inquiry told. Globe and Mail, 14 December 1995.Google Scholar
Krever, H. Commission of inquiry of the blood system in Canada: final report. www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/activit/com/krever-eng.phpGoogle Scholar
Gao, F et al. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 1999;397:436–41.Google Scholar
Keele, B et al. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1. Science 2006;313:523–6.Google Scholar
Van Heuverswyn, F et al. Genetic diversity and phylogeographic clustering of SIVcpz in wild chimpanzees in Cameroon. Virology 2007;368:155–71.Google Scholar
Vidal, N et al. Unprecedented degree of HIV-1 group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. J Virol 2000;74:10498–507.Google Scholar
Kalish, M et al. Recombinant viruses and early global HIV-1 epidemic. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:1227–34.Google Scholar
Zhu, T et al. An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic. Nature 1998;391:594–7.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 2008;55:661–4.Google Scholar
Sonnet, J et al. Early AIDS cases originating from Zaire and Burundi (1962–1976). Scand J Infect Dis 1987;19:511–17.Google Scholar
Desmyter, J et al. Anti LAV-HTLV-III in Kinshasa mothers in 1970 and 1980. Presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Paris, 1985.Google Scholar
Merlin, M et al. Surveillance épidémiologique du syndrome d’immunodépression acquise dans six états d’Afrique centrale. Med Trop (Mars) 1988;48:381–9.Google Scholar
Faria, N et al. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations. Science 2014;346:56–61.Google Scholar
Pépin, J. The origins of AIDS. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Gouvernement français. Rapport annuel du gouvernement français sur l’administration sous mandat des territoires du Cameroun pour l’année 1931. Paris: Gouvernement français, 1932.Google Scholar
Afrique Équatoriale Française. L’A.E.F économique et sociale, 1947–1958. Paris: Afrique Équatoriale Française, 1959.Google Scholar
Worobey, M et al. 1970s and ‘Patient 0’ HIV-1 genomes illuminate early HIV/AIDS history in North America. Nature 2016;539:98–101.Google Scholar
Gryseels, S et al. A near-full-length HIV-1 genome from 1966 recovered from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue. 2019. www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/687863v1Google Scholar
Aymerich, J. La conquête du Cameroun, 1er août 1914–20 février 1916. Paris: Payot, 1933.Google Scholar
Etambala, MZ. La grande guerre et la campagne camerounaise de la Force Publique. In Ndaywel e Nziem, I and Mantuba-Ngoma, PM (eds), Le Congo belge dans la première guerre mondiale. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2015.Google Scholar
Ministère de la guerre. Les Armées françaises durant la grande guerre. Vol. 9.2. Paris: Ministère de la guerre, 1935.Google Scholar
Fonds François Bal. File HA.01.0189-5. Brussels: AfricaMuseum.Google Scholar
Léo Bittremieux file. Archives CICM. Leuven: Kadoc Documentation and Research Center on Religion, Culture and Society.Google Scholar
Ministère des Armées. Service historique de la défense. Fonds 6H, Files 180,182. Vincennes.Google Scholar
Service public fédéral Affaires Étrangères. Archives Africaines. Files FP2649-1116. Brussels.Google Scholar
Croix-Rouge du Congo. Rapport annuel. Bruxelles: Croix-Rouge du Congo, 1929–59.Google Scholar
Beheyt, P. Contribution à l’étude des hépatites en Afrique: l’hépatite épidémique et l’hépatite par inoculation. Ann Soc Bel Med Trop 1953;33:297–340.Google Scholar
Hogan, C et al. Epidemic history and iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses in mid-20th century Kinshasa. J Infect Dis 2016;214:353–60.Google Scholar
La Fontaine, JS. City politics: a study of Léopoldville, 1962–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Raymaekers, P. L’organisation des zones de squatting. Paris: Éditions Universitaires,1964.Google Scholar
Comhaire-Sylvain, S. Femmes de Kinshasa, hier et aujourd’hui. Paris: Mouton, 1968.Google Scholar
Faria, N et al. Distinct rates and patterns of spread of the major HIV-1 subtypes in Central and East Africa. PLoS Pathogens 2019;15:e1007976.Google Scholar
Boulos, R et al. HIV-1 in Haitian women, 1982–88. JAIDS 1990;3:721–8.Google Scholar
Byers, R et al. Estimating AIDS infection rates in the San Francisco cohort. AIDS 1988;2:207–16.Google Scholar
Bacchetti, P et al. Incubation period of AIDS in San Francisco. Nature 1989:338:251–3.Google Scholar
Kroner, BL et al. HIV-1 infection incidence among persons with hemophilia in the United States and Western Europe, 1978–1990. JAIDS 1994;7:279–86.Google Scholar
Evatt, BL et al. Coincidental appearance of LAV/HTLV-III antibodies in hemophiliacs and the onset of the AIDS epidemic. N Eng J Med 1985;312:483–6.Google Scholar
Holtgrave, DR et al. Updated annual transmission rates in the United States, 1977–2006. JAIDS 2009;50:236–8.Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. HIV/AIDS surveillance database. www.census.gov/programs-surveys/international-programs/about/hiv.htmlGoogle Scholar
Nzila, N et al. The prevalence of infection with HIV over a 10-year period in rural Zaire. N Eng J Med 1988;318:276–9.Google Scholar
Desmyter, J et al. Anti LAV-HTLV-III in Kinshasa mothers in 1970 and 1980. Presented at the International Conference on AIDS, Paris, 1985.Google Scholar
Winkler, E et al. Seroepidemiology of human retrovirus in Gabon. AIDS 1989;3:106–7.Google Scholar
Merlin, M et al. Surveillance épidémiologique du syndrome d’immunodépression acquise dans six états d’Afrique centrale. Med Trop (Mars) 1988;48:381–9.Google Scholar
Vandersypen, M. Femmes libres de Kigali. Cah Etud Afr 1977;17:95–120.Google Scholar
Larson, A. Social context of HIV transmission in Africa: historical and cultural bases of East and Central African relations. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11:716–31.Google Scholar
Vidal, N et al. HIV type 1 diversity and antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in Burundi. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2007;23:175–80.Google Scholar
Servais, J et al. HIV type 1 pol gene diversity and archived nevirapine resistance mutation in pregnant women in Rwanda. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2004;20:279–83.Google Scholar
Pépin, J et al. The impact of HIV infection on the epidemiology and treatment of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness in Nioki, Zaire. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992;47:133–40.Google Scholar
Mokili, JL et al. Genetic heterogeneity of HIV-1 subtypes in Kimpese, rural Democratic Republic of Congo. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 1999;15:655–64.Google Scholar
Faria, N et al. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations. Science 2014;346:56–61.Google Scholar
Gray, RR et al. Spatial phylodynamics of HIV-1 epidemic emergence in East Africa. AIDS 2009;23:F9–17.Google Scholar
Dalai, SC et al. Evolution and molecular epidemiology of subtype C HIV-1 in Zimbabwe. AIDS 2009;23:2523–32.Google Scholar
Glynn, J et al. The development of the HIV epidemic in Karonga district, Malawi. AIDS 2001;15:2025–9.Google Scholar
Robertson, C. Women in the urban economy. In Hay, MJ and Stichter, S (eds),African women south of the Sahara. London: Longman, 1984.Google Scholar
Hué, S et al. Genetic analysis reveals the complex structure of HIV-1 transmission within defined risk groups. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:4425–9.Google Scholar
Dietrich, U et al. HIV-1 strains from India are highly divergent from prototypic African and US/European strains, but are linked to a South African isolate. AIDS 1993;7:23–7.Google Scholar
Chen, S. Origin and dynamics of HIV-1 subtype C in India. PLoS One 2011;6:e25956.Google Scholar
Weninger, BG et al. The epidemiology of HIV infection and AIDS in Thailand. AIDS 1991;5(suppl. 2):S71–S85.Google Scholar
Liao, H et al. Phylodynamic analysis of the dissemination of HIV-1 CRF01_AE in Vietnam. Virology 2009;391:51–6.Google Scholar
Li, Y et al. Explosive HIV-1 subtype B epidemics in Asia driven by geographic and risk group founder events. Virology 2010;402:223–7.Google Scholar
Shilts, R. And the band played on: politics, people and the AIDS epidemic. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.Google Scholar
McKay, RA. Patient zero and the making of the AIDS epidemic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017.Google Scholar
CDC. Update on Kaposi’s sarcoma and opportunistic infections in previously healthy persons: United States. MMWR 1982;31:294–301.Google Scholar
CDC. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among persons with hemophilia A. MMWR 1982;31:365–7.Google Scholar
CDC. Possible transfusion-associated AIDS: California. MMWR 1982;31:652–4.Google Scholar
CDC. A cluster of Kaposi’s sarcoma and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among homosexual male residents of Los Angeles and Orange counties, California. MMWR 1982;31:305–7.Google Scholar
Auerbach, DM et al. Cluster of cases of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Patients linked by sexual contact. Am J Med 1984;76:487–92.Google Scholar
Ligon-Borden, BL. Dr Jonathan Mann: champion of human rights in the fight against AIDS. Sem Pediatr Infect Dis 2003;14:314–22.Google Scholar
Fee, E et al. Jonathan Mann, HIV/AIDS, and human rights. J Public Health Policy 2008;29:54–71.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. The rise and fall of Projet Sida. Science 1997;278:1565–8.Google Scholar
Ryder, RW. Tribute to Jonathan Mann. AIDS 1998;12:ii–v.Google Scholar
Piot, P. No time to lose: a life in pursuit of deadly viruses. New York: Norton & Company, 2012.Google Scholar
Gostin, LO. A tribute to Jonathan Mann: health and human rights in the AIDS pandemic. J Law Med Ethics 1998;26:256–8.Google Scholar
Tarantola, D et al. Jonathan Mann: founder of the health and human rights movement. Am J Public Health 2006;96:1942–3.Google Scholar
Camus, A. La peste. Paris: Gallimard, 1947.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • References
  • Jacques Pépin, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
  • Book: The Origins of AIDS
  • Online publication: 05 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108767019.019
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • References
  • Jacques Pépin, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
  • Book: The Origins of AIDS
  • Online publication: 05 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108767019.019
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • References
  • Jacques Pépin, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
  • Book: The Origins of AIDS
  • Online publication: 05 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108767019.019
Available formats
×