Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T20:47:11.876Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - The etiology of antisocial behavior: biopsychosocial risk factors across development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2009

By
Kayla Pope  and
Christopher R. Thomas
Edited by
Carol L. Kessler  and
Louis James Kraus
Kayla Pope
Affiliation:
University of Manykind Sheppard Pratt 701 West Pratt Street Suite 476 Baltimore, MD 21201 USA
Christopher R. Thomas
Affiliation:
Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas 301 University Boulevard Galveston, TX 77555 USA
Carol L. Kessler
Affiliation:
Columbia University, New York
Louis James Kraus
Affiliation:
Rush University, Chicago
Get access

Summary

The criminal character was first described in 1812 by Benjamin Rush, after he consulted on a series of cases with young people who exhibited a “total perversion of moral faculties.” He speculated that in all of these cases of “innate, preternatural moral depravity, there is probably an original defective organization in those parts of the body which are occupied by the moral faculties of the mind.” For the remainder of the nineteenth century, scientific thought was devoted to understanding the inherent traits or physical defects that characterized the criminal character. At the beginning of the twentieth century, this focus of inquiry gave way to considerations of environmental influences on the development of criminal character among those working with juvenile offenders. Recognition of the importance of environmental factors was captured in the thoughts of W. Douglas Morrison (1898) who wrote that, “Unless a man has acquired criminal habits in early life it is comparatively seldom that he degenerates into an habitual criminal … Juvenile crime arises out of the adverse individual or social conditions of the juvenile offender, or out of both sets of conditions acting in combination.” The changing view of antisocial behavior in youth served as the basis for establishing the first juvenile court in Chicago in 1899, emphasizing rehabilitation instead of punishment. This directly led in 1909 to the creation of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute, later renamed the Institute for Juvenile Research, under the direction of William Healy.

Keywords

antisocial behaviorbiological factorsbiopsychosocial phenomenonenvironmental factorsrisk factors
Type
Chapter
Information
The Mental Health Needs of Young Offenders
Forging Paths toward Reintegration and Rehabilitation
 , pp. 122 - 145
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aber, J. L., Brown, J. L. & Jones, S. M. (2003). Developmental trajectories toward violence in middle childhood: course, demographic differences, and response to school-based intervention. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 324–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aultman, M. (1980). Group involvement in delinquent acts: a study of offense type and male–female participation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 7, 185–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E., Bayles, K., Bennett D. S., Ridge, B. & Brown, M. M. (1991). Origins of externalizing behavior problems at eight years of age. In Pepler, D. J. and Rubin, K. H., eds., The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 93–120.
Bates, J. E., Marvinney, D., Kelly, T.et al. (1994). Child-care history and kindergarten adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 30, 690–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battin, S., Hill, K., Abbott, R., Catalano, R. & Hawkins, J. (1998). The contribution of gang membership to delinquency beyond delinquent friends. Criminology, 36(1), 93–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: retrospect and prospect. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broidy, L. M., Tremblay, R. E., Brame, B.et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: a six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 222–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brower, M. C. & Price, B. H. (2001). Neuropsychiatry of frontal lobe dysfunction in violent and criminal behavior: a critical review. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 71, 720–726.Google Scholar
Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X. O., Ropers, H. H. & Oost, B. A. (1993). Abnormal-behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase-A. Science, 262, 578–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bushman, B. H. & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadoret, R. J., Yates, W. R., Troughton, E., Woodworth, G. & Stewart, M. A. (1995). Genetic-environment interaction in the genesis of aggressivity and conduct disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 916–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, S., Gill, K., Johnson, M. & Smith, C. (1999). Emotional reactivity and emotion regulation strategies as predictors of social behavior with peers in toddlerhood. Social Development, 8, 310–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capaldi, D. M. & Patterson, G. R. (1994). Interrelated influences of contextual factors on antisocial behavior in childhood and adolescence for males. Progress in Experimental Personality and Psychopathology Research Review, 165–198.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. & Sroufe, L. (1995). Contribution of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. and Cohen, D., eds., Developmental Psychopathology, Vol. 1 Theory and Methods. New York: Wiley, pp. 581–617.
Caspi, A. (2000) The child is father of the man: personality continuities from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 158–172.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E.et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.Google Scholar
Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1984). Origins and Evolution of Behavior Disorders: From Infancy to Early Adult Life. New York, NY: Brunner Mazel.
Cohen, D. & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy in conduct disordered and comparison youth. Developmental Psychology, 32, 988–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coie, J. D., Terry, R. & Lochman, J. E. (1995). Changing social networks and their impact on juvenile delinquency. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Phoenix, AZ.
Colwell, M. J., Pettit, G. S., Meece, D., Bates, J. E. & Dodge, K. A. (2001). Cumulative risk and continuity in nonparental care from infancy to early adolescence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 207–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christian, R. E., Frick, P. J., Hill, N. J., Tyler, L. & Frazer, D. R. (1997). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children: II. Implications for subtyping children with conduct problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(2), 233–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, J. J. & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1989). Aggression between peers in early childhood: individual continuity and developmental change. Child Development, 69, 887–895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, E., Davies, P. & Campbell, S. (2000). Developmental Psychopathology and Family Process: Theory, Research and Clinical Implications. New York: The Guilford Press.
Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M. & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: a possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591–594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L. & Cornelius, M. D. (2000). Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers' behavior. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21, 180–188.Google Scholar
Cubas, M. M. & Field, T. (1993). Children of methadone-dependent women: developmental outcomes. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63, 266–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K. & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Externalizing behavior problems and discipline revisited: nonlinear effects and variation by culture, context and gender. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 161–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. & Pettit, G. S. (1998) Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 469–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dionne, G., Boivin, M., Tremblay, R., Laplante, D. & Perusse, D. (2003). Physical aggression and expressive vocabulary in 19-month-old twins. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 261–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T. J. & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: a conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(1), 61–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T. J., Andrews, D. W. & Crosby, L. (1995). Antisocial boys and their friends in early adolescence: relationship characteristics, quality, and interactional processes. Child Development, 66, 139–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A. (1993). Social-cognitive mechanisms in the development of conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 559–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Petit, G. S., Bates, J. E. & Valente, E. (1995). Social information processing patterns partially mediate the effects of early physical abuse on later conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 632–643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Burks, V. S.et al. (2003). Peer rejection and social information-processing factors in the development of aggressive behavior problems in children. Child Development, 74(2), 374–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, B., Kalkoska, M., Gottesman, N. & Erickson, M. (1990). Preschool behavior problems: stability and factors accounting for change. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 891–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eley, T. C., Lichenstein, P. & Stevenson, J. (1999). Sex differences in the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior: results for two twin studies. Child Development, 70, 155–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1998). Predictors, causes and correlates of male youth violence. In Tonry, M. and Moore, M. H., eds., Youth Violence, Vol. 24. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp. 421–447.
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J. & Lynsky, M. T. (1996). Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorders in young adulthood, II: psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1365–1374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, D. J., Williams, L. L. & Vazsonyi, A. T. (1999). Who are they with and what are they doing? Delinquent behavior, substance abuse, and early adolescents' after-school time. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69(2), 247–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florsheim, P., Tolan, P. H. & Gorman-Smith, D. (1996). Family Processes and risk for externalizing behavior problems among African American and Hispanic boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(6), 1222–1230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowles, D. C. (2001). Biological variables in psychopathology: a psychobiological perspective. In Sutker, P. B. and Adams, H. E., eds., Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology, 3rd edn. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press, pp. 85–104.
Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Bodin, S. D.et al. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 246–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glueck, S. & Glueck, E. (1950). Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Goldberg, S., Gotowweic, A. & Simmons, R. (1995), Infant–mother attachment and behavior problems in healthy and clinically ill preschoolers. Developmental Psychopathology, 7, 267–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golden, C. J., Jackson, M. L., Peterson-Rohne, A. & Gotkovsky, S. T. (1996). Neuropsychological correlates of violence and aggression: a review of the clinical literature. Aggressive Violent Behavior, 1, 2–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldschmidt, L., Day, N. L. & Richardson, G. A. (2000). Effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on child behavior problems at age 10. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 22, 325–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, M. (1999). Attachment and psychopathology in childhood. In Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P., eds., Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Implications. New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 469–496.
Guttmann-Steinmetz, S. & Crowell, J. (2006). Attachment and externalizing disorders: a developmental psychopathology approach. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 440–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, R. D. (1968). Psychopathy, autonomic functioning and the orienting response. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, J. D. & Lishner, D. M. (1987). The social development model: an integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, D. F., Castle, J. & Davies, L. (2000). Toddlers use of force against familiar peers: a precursor of serious aggression?Child Development, 71, 457–467.Google Scholar
Healy, W. (1917). The Individual Delinquent. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co.
Henry, D., Guerra, N. G.Huesmann, L. R.et al. (2000). Normative influences on aggression in urban elementary class rooms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(1), 59–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, D. B., Tolan, P. H. & Gorman-Smith, D. (2001). Longitudinal family and peer group effects on violence and nonviolent delinquency. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30(2), 172–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herpertz, S. C., Wenning, B., Mueller, B.et al. (2003). Psychophysiologic responses in ADHD boys with and without conduct disorder: implications for adult antisocial behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1222–1230.Google Scholar
Herrenkohl, T. I., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G.et al. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26(3), 176–186.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underacheivement in childhood and adolescence: casual relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (1994). Conduct disorder in childhood: conceptualization, diagnosis, comorbidity, and risk status for antisocial functioning in adulthood. In Fowles, D. C., Sutker, P. and Goodman, S. H., eds., Progress in Experimental Personality and Psychopathology Research 1994: Special Focus on Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality: A Developmental Perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 3–44.
Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schemas in the acquisition and maintenance of habitual aggressive behavior. In Green, R. G. and Donnerstein, E., eds., Human Aggression: Theories, Research and Implications for Policy. New York: Academic Press, pp. 73–109.CrossRef
Huesmann, L. R. & Miller, L. S. (1994). Long-term effects of repeated exposure to media violence in childhood. In Huesmann, L. R., ed., Aggressive Behavior: Current Perspectives. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 153–186.CrossRef
Huesmann, L., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C. L. & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between children's exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 201–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, H. M., Parkinson, D. & Vargo, M. (1989). Witnessing spouse abuse and experiencing physical abuse: a double whammy?Journal of Family Violence, 4, 197–209.Google Scholar
Jaffe, P., Wolfe, D. & Wilson, S. K. (1990). Children of Battered Women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kaukiainen, A., Bjorkqvist, K., Lagerspertz, K.et al. (1999). The relationships between social intelligence, empathy and the three types of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 81–89.3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruesi, M. J. P., Rapoport, J. L., Hamburger, S.et al. (1990). Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites, aggression, and impulsivity in disruptive behavior of children and adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 419–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruesi, M. J., Hibbs, E. D., Zahn, T. P.et al. (1992). A 2-year prospective follow-up study of children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. Prediction by cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid, homovanillic acid, and autonomic measures?Archives of General Psychiatry, 49(6), 429–435.Google Scholar
Ladd, G. W. & Pettit, G. S. (2002). Parenting and the development of children's peer relations in the context of family and neighborhood factors. Child Development, 66, 360–375.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Loerber, R., Hart, E. L.et al. (1995). Four year longitudinal study of conduct disorder in boys: patterns and predictors of persistence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 83–89.Google Scholar
Laird, R. D., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E. & Dodge, K. A. (2003). Parents' monitoring-relevant knowledge and adolescents' behavior: evidence of correlated developmental changes and reciprocal influences. Child Development, 74(3), 752–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Emotional networks in the brain. In Lewis, M. and Haviland, J. M., eds., Handbook of Emotions. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 109–118.
Lewis, D. O., Mallouh, C. & Webb, J. (1989). Child abuse, delinquency and violent criminality. In Chicchetti, D. and Carlson, V., eds., Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Loeber, R. & Hay, D. F. (1994). Developmental approaches to aggression and conduct problems. In Rutter, M. and Hay, D. F. eds., Development Through Life: A Handbook for Clinicians. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, pp. 488–515.
Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy and conduct problems: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 131–152.Google Scholar
Luntz, B. K. & Widom, C. S. (1994). Antisocial personality disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 670–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lykken, D. T. (1957). A study of anxiety in sociopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychiatry, 55, 6–10.Google Scholar
Lytton, H. (1991). Parents' different socialization of boys and girls: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M. & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with parent at age 6: predictable from infant attachment classification and stable over a one month period. Developmental Psychology, 50, 66–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthys, W., Cuperus, J. M. & Engeland, H. (1999). Deficient social problem solving in boys with ODD/CD, with ADHD, and with both disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 311–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J. & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38–43.Google Scholar
McCord, J. (1979). Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(9), 1477–1486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFayden-Ketchum, S. A., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A. & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Patterns of change in early child aggressive-disruptive behavior: gender differences in predictors from early coercive and affectionate mother–child interactions. Child Development, 67, 2417–2433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKibben, L., Vos, E. & Newberger, E. (1989). Victimization of mothers of abused children: a controlled study. Pediatrics, 84, 531–535.Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E., Tremblay, R. E., Kindlon, D.et al. (1996). Relationship of aggression and anxiety to autonomic regulation of heart rate variability in adolescent males. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 794, 376–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, D. R. & Carey, G. (1997). Genetic and environmental architecture of human aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 207–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Gabrielli, W. F., Mednick, S. A. & Schulsinger, F. (1981). Socioeconomic status, IQ, and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 152–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harkness, A. R. & Silva, P. A. (1993). The natural history of change in intellectual performance: Who changes? How much? Is it meaningful?Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(4), 455–506.Google Scholar
Morrison, W. D. (1898). Juvenile Offenders. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Co.
Nagin, D. S. & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of boys' physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181–1196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Needleman, H. L., Reiss, J. A., Tobin, M. J., Biesecker, G. E. & Greenhouse, J. B. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association, 275(5), 363–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2002). Parenting and family influences when children are in child care: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. In Borkowski, J. G., Ramey, S. L. and Bristol-Powers, M., eds., Parenting and the Child's World: Influences on Academic, Intellectual, and Social-Emotional Development. Monographs in Parenting Series. New York: College Entrance Exam Board, pp. 59–89.
Olson, S., Bookstein, F. L. & Theide, K. (1997). Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioral and learning problems in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1187–1194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1995). Coercion – a basis for early age onset for arrest. In McCord, J., ed., Coercion and Punishment in Long-Term Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 81–105.CrossRef
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B. & Dishion, T. J. (1992). A Social Learning Approach: Volume 4. Antisocial Boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Peeples, F. & Loeber, R. (1994). Do individual factors and neighborhood context explain ethnic differences in juvenile delinquency?Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 10(2), 141–157.Google Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E. & Dodge, K. A. (1993). Family interaction patterns and children's conduct problems at home and at school: a longitudinal perspective. School Psychology Review, 22, 401–418.Google Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Clawson, M., Dodge, K. A. & Bates, J. E. (1996). Stability and change in children's peer rejected status: the role of child behavior, parent–child relations, and family ecology. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 42, 91–118.Google Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E. & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context and children's adjustment. Child Development, 68, 908–923; Developmental Psychology, 23, 267–275.Google Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A. & Meece, D. W. (1999). The impact of after-school peer contact on early adolescent externalizing problems is moderated by parental monitoring, perceived neighborhood safety, and prior adjustment. Child Development, 70(3) 768–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettit, G. S., Laird, R. D., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. & Criss, M. M. (2001). Antecendents and behavior-problem outcomes of parental monitoring and psychological control in early adolescence. Child Development, 72(2), 583–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, D. S., Bruder, G. E., Wasserman, G. A.et al. (1997). Verbal dichotic listening in boys at risk for behavioral disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1465–1473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pisecco, S., Wristers, K., Swank, P., Silva, P. A. & Baker, D. B. (2001). The effect of academic self-concept on ADHD and antisocial behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(5), 450–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pliszka, S. R. (1999). The psychobiology of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In Quay, H. C. and Hogan, A. E., eds., Handbook of Disruptive Behavior Disorders. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, pp. 371–395.CrossRef
Poole, E. & Regoli, R. (1979). Parental support, delinquent friends, and delinquency: a test of interaction effects. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 70(2), 188–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, J. K. & Vandell, D. L. (1999). After-school activities and the development of low-income urban children. A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 35, 868–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A. & Oberklaid, F. (2001). Longitudinal predictors of behavioural adjustment in pre-adolescent children. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35(3), 297–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Williams, M. (1990). Relationships between central and autonomic measures of arousal at age 15 years and criminality at age 24 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47(11), 1003–1007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Williams, M. (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: evidence from Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1457–1464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Stoddard, J., Bihrle, S. & Buschbaum, M. (1998). Prefrontal glucose deficits in murderers lacking psychosocial deprivation. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 11, 1–17.Google Scholar
Reid, W. J. & Crisafulli, A. (1990). Marital discord and child behavioral problems: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 105–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richters, J. & Waters E. (1991). Attachment and socialization: the positive side of social influence. In Lewis, M. and Feinman, S., eds., Social Influences and Socialization in Infancy. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 185–213.CrossRef
Rowe, D. C. (1985). Sibling interaction and self-reported delinquent behavior: a study of 265 twin pairs. Criminology, 23, 223–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. & Parker, J. G. (1998). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In Damon, W. (series ed.) and Eisenberg, N. (vol. ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 3. Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, 5th edn. New York: Wiley, pp. 619–700.
Rush, B. (1812). Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind. Philadelphia, PA: Kimber & Richardson.
Rutter, M., Yule, B., Quinton, D.et al. (1975). Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas: III. Some factors accounting for area differences. British Journal Psychiatry, 126, 520–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M., Dunn, J., Plomin, R. & Simonoff, E. (1997). Integrating nurture and nature: Implications of person–environment correlations and interactions for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 335–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M., Giller, H. & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial Behavior by Young People. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sampson, R. J. (1997). The embeddedness of child and adolescent development: a community-level perspective on urban violence. In McCord, J., ed., Violence and Childhood in the Inner City. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 31–77.CrossRef
Sanson, A., Prior, M. & Smart, D. (1996). Reading disabilities with and without behavior problems at 7–8 years: prediction from longitudinal data from infancy to 6 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 529–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarpa, A. & Raine, A. (2000). Violence associated with anger and impulsivity. In Borod, J. C., ed., The Neuropsychology of Emotion. Series in Affective Science. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 320–339.
Schore, A. (2003). Affect Dysregulation and Disorders of the Self. New York: NY, WW Norton & Company.
Shaw, D. S., Gilliom, M., Ingoldsby, E. M. & Nagin, D. S. (2003). Trajectories leading to school-age conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 189–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonoff, E., Elander, J., Holmshaw, J.et al. (2004). Predictors of antisocial personality: continuities from childhood to adult life. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 118–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, J. J., Pettit, G. S., Harrist, A. W., Dodge, K. A. & Bates, J. E. (1994). Encounters with aggressive peers in early childhood: frequency, age differences and correlates of risk for behavior problems. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17, 675–696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suess, G., Grossman, K. E. & Sroufe, L. A. (1992). Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on quality of adaptation in preschool: from dyadic to individual organization of self. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 43–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, J., Iacono, W. G. & McGue, M. (2000). Evidence for a genetic etiology of early-onset delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 634–643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1968). Temperament and Behavior Disorders in Childhood. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Thomas, C., Holzer, C. & Wall, J. (2003). Serious delinquency and gang membership. Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 61–81.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. (1999). Early attachment and later development. In Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P., eds., Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, pp. 265–286.
Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M., Lizotte, A. J. & Chard-Wierschem, D. (1993). The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 55–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolan, P. H. & Gorman-Smith, D. (1997). Families and development of urban children. In Walburg, H. J., Reyes, O. and Weissberg, R. P., eds., Urban Children and Youth: Interdisciplinary Perspective on Policies and Programs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 67–91.
Torgerson, S. (1997). Genetic basis and psychopathology. In Turner, S. M. and Hersen, M., eds., Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis, 3rd edn. New York, NY: Wiley, pp. 58–85.
Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: what have we learned in the past century?Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141.Google Scholar
Trickett, P. K. & Putnam, F. W. (1998). Developmental consequences of child sexual abuse. In Trickett, P. K. and Schellenbach, C. J., eds., Violence Against Children in the Family and the Community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 39–56.CrossRef
Troy, M. & Sroufe, A. (1987). Victimization among preschoolers: role of attachment relationship history. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 166–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unis, A. S., Cook, E. H., Vincent, J. G.et al. (1997). Platelet serotonin measures in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 553–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandell, D. L. & Posner, J. K. (1999). Conceptualization and measurement of children's after-school environments. In Friedman, S. L. and Wachs, T. D., eds., Measuring Environment Across the Life Span: Emerging Methods and Concepts. Washington DC: American Psychological Press, pp. 167–196.CrossRef
Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T.et al. (1998). Salivary cortisol and cardiovascular activity during stress in oppositional defiant disorder boys and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 531–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanyukow, M. M., Moss, H. B., Plial, J. A.et al. (1993). Antisocial symptoms in preadolescent boys and in their parents: associations with cortisol. Psychiatry Research, 46, 9–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villani, S. (2001). Impact of media on children and adolescents: a 10-year review of the research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(4), 392–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Tancredi, L. R., Grant, C.et al. (1995). Brain glucose metabolism in violent psychiatric patients: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Research, 61, 243–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakschlag, L., Pickett, K., Cook, E., Benowitz, N. & Leventhal, B. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe antisocial behavior in offspring: a review. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 969–974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakschlag, L., Pickett, K., Kasza, K. E. & Loeber, R. (2006). Is prenatal smoking associated with a developmental pattern of conduct problems in young boys?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 461–467.Google Scholar
Weiler, B. L. & Widom, C. S. (1996). Psychopathy and violent behavior in abused and neglected young adults. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 6, 253–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. & Cornell, D. C. (1999). PIQ > VIQ discrepancy as a correlate of social problem solving and aggression in delinquent adolescent males. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 17, 104–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×