Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T06:28:00.577Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 9 - Cannabis and Cognition

An Update on Short- and Long-term Effects

from Part III - Cannabis and the Brain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2023

By
Lisa-Marie Greenwood ,
Valentina Lorenzetti  and
Nadia Solowij
Edited by
Deepak Cyril D'Souza ,
David Castle  and
Sir Robin Murray
Deepak Cyril D'Souza
Affiliation:
Staff Psychiatrist, VA Connecticut Healthcare System; Professor of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine
David Castle
Affiliation:
University of Tasmania, Australia
Sir Robin Murray
Affiliation:
Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Psychosis Service at the South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; Professor of Psychiatric Research at the Institute of Psychiatry
Get access

Summary

With increasing legalization and medicalization of cannabis use, there is need for greater public awareness of the short- and long-term effects of cannabis use on cognition. Recent research has comprised a renewed focus on increasing the safety profile of cannabis to reduce potential harms. In this chapter, we summarize recent evidence to support that acute exposure to cannabis impairs cognitive function in humans, particularly in the domains of learning, episodic memory, attention, and processing speed. The evidence for non-intoxicating residual effects of chronic cannabis use is less consistent and there is a need for further research to investigate risk factors that may slow or prevent recovery of cognitive impairment in some regular users. We then discuss factors that confer greater risk and resilience to cognitive impairment following cannabis use and field-wide methodological challenges that need to be tackled to delineate the cognitive domains that are most vulnerable to cannabis exposure. These future directions are necessary to inform targets for preventative interventions and public health policies to mitigate the harms that people can experience when using cannabis.

Keywords

cannabiscognitionacuteresidualrecovery
Type
Chapter
Information
Marijuana and Madness , pp. 76 - 90
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, K. C. S., Doss, M. K., Pabon, E., et al. (2020). Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs visual working memory performance: A randomized crossover trial. Neuropsychopharmacology, 45, 1807–1816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alcorn, J. L. 3rd, Marks, K. R., Stoops, W. W., et al. (2019). Attentional bias to cannabis cues in cannabis users but not cocaine users. Addict Behav, 88, 129–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballard, M. E., Gallo, D. A., and De Wit, H. (2012). Psychoactive drugs and false memory: Comparison of dextroamphetamine and δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on false recognition. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 219, 15–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barfi, E., Tehrani, A. M., Mohammadpanah, M., et al. (2021). The role of tetrahydrocannabinol in inducing disrupted signaling cascades, hippocampal atrophy and memory defects. J Chem Neuroanat, 113, 101943.Google Scholar
Batalla, A., Crippa, J. A., Busatto, G. F., et al. (2014). Neuroimaging studies of acute effects of THC and CBD in humans and animals: A systematic review. Curr Pharm Des, 20, 2168–2185.Google Scholar
Battistella, G., Fornari, E., Annoni, J.-M., et al. (2014). Long-term effects of cannabis on brain structure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 2041–2048.Google Scholar
Bedi, G., Cooper, Z. D., & Haney, M. (2013). Subjective, cognitive and cardiovascular dose–effect profile of nabilone and dronabinol in marijuana smokers. Addict Biol, 18, 872–881.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S., Atakan, Z., Martin-Santos, R., et al. (2015). Impairment of inhibitory control processing related to acute psychotomimetic effects of cannabis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 25, 26–37.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S., Egerton, A., Kim, E., et al. (2017). Acute induction of anxiety in humans by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol related to amygdalar cannabinoid-1 (CB1) receptors. Sci Rep, 7, 15025.Google Scholar
Blest-Hopley, G., O’Neill, A., Wilson, R., et al. (2021). Disrupted parahippocampal and midbrain function underlie slower verbal learning in adolescent-onset regular cannabis use. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 238, 1315–1331.Google Scholar
Bloomfield, M. A. P., Green, S. F., Hindocha, C., et al. (2020). The effects of acute cannabidiol on cerebral blood flow and its relationship to memory: An arterial spin labelling magnetic resonance imaging study. J Psychopharmacol, 34, 981–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonn-Miller, M. O., Elsohly, M. A., Loflin, M. J. E., et al. (2018). Cannabis and cannabinoid drug development: Evaluating botanical versus single molecule approaches. Int Rev Psychiatry, 30, 277–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgan, F., Beck, K., Butler, E., et al. (2019). The effects of cannabinoid 1 receptor compounds on memory: A meta-analysis and systematic review across species. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 236, 3257–3270.Google Scholar
Bosker, W. M., Karschner, E. L., Lee, D., et al. (2013). Psychomotor function in chronic daily cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence. PLoS ONE, 8, e53127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bossong, M. G., Jansma, J. M., Van Hell, H. H., et al. (2012). Effects of δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human working memory function. Biol Psychiatry, 71, 693–699.Google Scholar
Bossong, M. G., Mehta, M. A., Van Berckel, B. N., et al. (2015). Further human evidence for striatal dopamine release induced by administration of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): Selectivity to limbic striatum. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 232, 2723–2729.Google Scholar
Bourque, J., and Potvin, S. (2021). Cannabis and cognitive functioning: From acute to residual effects, from randomized controlled trials to prospective designs. Front Psychiatry, 12, 919.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broyd, S.J., Greenwood, L.-M., Van Hell, H. H., et al. (2016a). Mismatch negativity and P50 sensory gating in abstinent former cannabis users. Neural Plast, 2016, 6526437.Google Scholar
Broyd, S.J., Van Hell, H. H., Yucel, M., et al. (2016b). Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on human cognition: A systematic review. Biol Psychiatry, 79, 557–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castellanos-Ryan, N., Pingault, J.-B., Parent, S., et al. (2017). Adolescent cannabis use, change in neurocognitive function, and high-school graduation: A longitudinal study from early adolescence to young adulthood. Dev Psychopathol, 29, 1253–1266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ceccarini, J., Kuepper, R., Kemels, D., et al. (2015). [18f]mk-9470 pet measurement of cannabinoid CB1 receptor availability in chronic cannabis users. Addict Biol, 20, 357–367.Google Scholar
Cengel, H. Y., Bozkurt, M., Evren, C., et al. (2018). Evaluation of cognitive functions in individuals with synthetic cannabinoid use disorder and comparison to individuals with cannabis use disorder. Psychiatry Res, 262, 46–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chandra, S., Radwan, M. M., Majumdar, C. G., et al. (2019). New trends in cannabis potency in USA and Europe during the last decade (2008–2017). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 5–15.Google Scholar
Chye, Y., Kirkham, R., Lorenzetti, V., et al. (2021). Cannabis, cannabinoids, and brain morphology: A review of the evidence. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 6, 627–635.Google Scholar
Chye, Y., Lorenzetti, V., Suo, C., et al. (2019). Alteration to hippocampal volume and shape confined to cannabis dependence: A multi-site study. Addict Biol, 24, 822–834.Google Scholar
Colizzi, M., and Bhattacharyya, S. (2017). Does cannabis composition matter? Differential effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human cognition. Curr Addic Rep, 4, 62–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colizzi, M., and Bhattacharyya, S. (2018). Cannabis use and the development of tolerance: A systematic review of human evidence. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 93, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colizzi, M., Fazio, L., Ferranti, L., et al. (2015). Functional genetic variation of the cannabinoid receptor 1 and cannabis use interact on prefrontal connectivity and related working memory behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 640–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colizzi, M., McGuire, P., Giampietro, V., et al. (2018). Previous cannabis exposure modulates the acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on attentional salience and fear processing. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 26, 582–598.Google Scholar
Colizzi, M., Weltens, N., Mcguire, P., et al. (2020). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases striatal glutamate levels in healthy individuals: Implications for psychosis. Mol Psychiatry, 25, 3231–3240.Google Scholar
Cousijn, J., Goudriaan, A. E., Ridderinkhof, K. R., et al. (2013). Neural responses associated with cue-reactivity in frequent cannabis users. Addict Biol, 18, 570–580.Google Scholar
Cousijn, J., Wiers, R. W., Ridderinkhof, K. R., et al. (2014). Effect of baseline cannabis use and working-memory network function on changes in cannabis use in heavy cannabis users: A prospective FMRI study. Hum Brain Mapp, 35, 2470–2482.Google Scholar
Crane, N. A., Schuster, R. M., and Gonzalez, R. (2013). Preliminary evidence for a sex-specific relationship between amount of cannabis use and neurocognitive performance in young adult cannabis users. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 19, 1009–1015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curran, T., Devillez, H., Yorkwilliams, S. L., et al. (2020). Acute effects of naturalistic THC vs. CBD use on recognition memory: A preliminary study. J Cannabis Res, 2, 28.Google Scholar
Cuttler, C., Mclaughlin, R. J., and Graf, P. (2012). Mechanisms underlying the link between cannabis use and prospective memory. PLoS ONE, 7, e36820.Google Scholar
D’Souza, D. C., Cortes-Briones, J. A., Ranganathan, M., et al. (2016). Rapid changes in CB1 receptor availability in cannabis dependent males after abstinence from cannabis. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 1, 60–67.Google Scholar
Day, A. M., Metrik, J., Spillane, N. S., et al. (2013). Working memory and impulsivity predict marijuana-related problems among frequent users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 131, 171–174.Google Scholar
Desrosiers, N. A., Himes, S. K., Scheidweiler, K. B., et al. (2014). Phase I and II cannabinoid disposition in blood and plasma of occasional and frequent smokers following controlled smoked cannabis. Clin Chem, 60, 631–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dinis-Oliveira, R. J. (2016). Metabolomics of δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol: Implications in toxicity. Drug Metab Rev, 48, 80–87.Google Scholar
Doss, M. K., Weafer, J., Gallo, D. A., et al. (2018). Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol at retrieval drives false recollection of neutral and emotional memories. Biol Psychiatry, 84, 743–750.Google Scholar
Duperrouzel, J. C., Hawes, S. W., Lopez-Quintero, C., et al. (2019). Adolescent cannabis use and its associations with decision-making and episodic memory: Preliminary results from a longitudinal study. Neuropsychology, 33, 701–710.Google Scholar
ElSohly, M. A., Mehmedic, Z., Foster, S., et al. (2016). Changes in cannabis potency over the last 2 decades (1995–2014): Analysis of current data in the united states. Biol Psychiatry, 79, 613–619.Google Scholar
Englund, A., Atakan, Z., Kralj, A., et al. (2015). The effect of five day dosing with THCV on THC-induced cognitive, psychological and physiological effects in healthy male human volunteers: A placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover pilot trial. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 140–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Englund, A., Freeman, T. P., Murray, R. M., et al. (2017). Can we make cannabis safer? Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 643–648.Google Scholar
Englund, A., Morrison, P. D., Nottage, J., et al. (2013). Cannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairment. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford), 27, 19–27.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). (2015). European Drug Report 2015: Trends and Developments. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
Fan, N., Yang, H., Zhang, J., et al. (2010). Reduced expression of glutamate receptors and phosphorylation of creb are responsible for in vivo δ9-THC exposure-impaired hippocampal synaptic plasticity. J Neurochem, 112, 691–702.Google Scholar
Filbey, F. M., Aslan, S., Calhoun, V. D., et al. (2014). Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. PNAS, 111, 16913.Google Scholar
Fishbein, M., Gov, S., Assaf, F., et al. (2012). Long-term behavioral and biochemical effects of an ultra-low dose of δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): Neuroprotection and erk signaling. Exp Brain Res, 221, 437–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fontes, M. A., Bolla, K. I., Cunha, P. J., et al. (2018). Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning. Br J Psychiatry, 198, 442–447.Google Scholar
Freeman, A. M., Petrilli, K., Lees, R., et al. (2019). How does cannabidiol (CBD) influence the acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in humans? A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 107, 696–712.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Craft, S., Wilson, J., et al. (2021). Changes in delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) concentrations in cannabis over time: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction, 116, 1000–1010.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Hindocha, C., Green, S. F., et al. (2019). Medicinal use of cannabis based products and cannabinoids. BMJ, 365, l1141.Google Scholar
Freeman, T. P., Morgan, C. J., Hindocha, C., et al. (2014). Just say ‘know’: How do cannabinoid concentrations influence users’ estimates of cannabis potency and the amount they roll in joints? Addiction, 109, 1686–1694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., and Gray, R. (2005). Neurocognitive consequences of marihuana: A comparison with pre-drug performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 27, 231–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frolli, A., Ricci, M. C., Cavallaro, A., et al. (2021). Cognitive development and cannabis use in adolescents. Behav Sci (Basel), 11, 37.Google Scholar
Gajewski, P. D., Hanisch, E., Falkenstein, M., et al. (2018). What does the N-back task measure as we get older? Relations between working-memory measures and other cognitive functions across the lifespan. Front Psychol, 9, 2208.Google Scholar
Ganzer, F., Bröning, S., Kraft, S., et al. (2016). Weighing the evidence: A systematic review on long-term neurocognitive effects of cannabis use in abstinent adolescents and adults. Neuropsychol Rev, 26, 186–222.Google Scholar
Gessa, G. L., Casu, M. A., Carta, G., et al. (1998). Cannabinoids decrease acetylcholine release in the medial-prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, reversal by sr 141716a. Eur J Pharmacol, 355, 119–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van de Giessen, E., Weinstein, J. J., Cassidy, C. M., et al. (2017). Deficits in striatal dopamine release in cannabis dependence. Mol Psychiatry, 22, 68–75.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, R., Schuster, R. M., Mermelstein, R. J., et al. (2012). Performance of young adult cannabis users on neurocognitive measures of impulsive behavior and their relationship to symptoms of cannabis use disorders. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 34, 962–976.Google Scholar
Gorey, C., Kuhns, L., Smaragdi, E., et al. (2019). Age-related differences in the impact of cannabis use on the brain and cognition: A systematic review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 37–58.Google Scholar
Government of Canada (GOC). (2019). Canadian tobacco, alcohol and drugs survey (CTADS): Summary of results for 2017. Available at: www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/canadian-tobacco-alcohol-drugs-survey/2017-summary.html (Last accessed 9 April 2021).Google Scholar
Grant, J. E., Chamberlain, S. R., Schreiber, L., et al. (2012). Neuropsychological deficits associated with cannabis use in young adults. Drug Alcohol Depend, 121, 159–162.Google Scholar
Griffith-Lendering, M. F. H., Huijbregts, S. C. J., Vollebergh, W. A. M., et al. (2012). Motivational and cognitive inhibitory control in recreational cannabis users. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 34, 688–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunasekera, B., Diederen, K., and Bhattacharyya, S. (2022). Cannabinoids, reward processing, and psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 239, 1157–1177.Google Scholar
Hall, W., Hoch, E., and Lorenzetti, V. (2019). Cannabis use and mental health: Risks and benefits. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 1–3.Google Scholar
Herzig, D. A., Nutt, D. J., and Mohr, C. (2014). Alcohol and relatively pure cannabis use, but not schizotypy, are associated with cognitive attenuations. Front Psychiatry, 5, 133.Google Scholar
Hill, S. Y., Sharma, V., and Jones, B. L. (2016). Lifetime use of cannabis from longitudinal assessments, cannabinoid receptor (CNR1) variation, and reduced volume of the right anterior cingulate. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging, 255, 24–34.Google Scholar
Hirvonen, J. (2015). In vivo imaging of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor with positron emission tomography. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 97, 565–567.Google Scholar
Hirvonen, J., Goodwin, R. S., Li, C. T., et al. (2012). Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers. Mol Psychiatry, 17, 642–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hooper, S. R., Woolley, D., and De Bellis, M. D. (2014). Intellectual, neurocognitive, and academic achievement in abstinent adolescents with cannabis use disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 231, 1467–1477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, A., Lipari, R. N., and Williams, M. R. (2016). Marijuana use and perceived risk of harm from marijuana use varies within and across states. In: The CBHSQ Report. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US). Available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK396156/. Last accessed 30 October 2022.Google Scholar
Hurd, Y. L., Manzoni, O. J., Pletnikov, M. V., et al. (2019). Cannabis and the developing brain: Insights into its long-lasting effects. J Neurosci, 39, 8250.Google Scholar
Jacobs, D. S., Kohut, S. J., Jiang, S., et al. (2016). Acute and chronic effects of cannabidiol on δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (δ⁹-THC)-induced disruption in stop signal task performance. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 24, 320–330.Google Scholar
Kaczkurkin, A. N., Raznahan, A., and Satterthwaite, T. D. (2019). Sex differences in the developing brain: Insights from multimodal neuroimaging. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44, 71–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, R., Naveed, S., Mian, N., et al. (2020). The therapeutic role of cannabidiol in mental health: A systematic review. J Cannabis Res, 2, 2.Google Scholar
Kloft, L., Otgaar, H., Blokland, A., et al. (2020). Cannabis increases susceptibility to false memory. PNAS, 117, 4585.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F. D., and Volkow, N. D. M. D. (2016). Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 760–773.Google Scholar
Kroon, E., Kuhns, L., and Cousijn, J. (2021). The short-term and long-term effects of cannabis on cognition: Recent advances in the field. Curr Opin Psychol, 38, 49–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krzyzanowski, D. J., and Purdon, S. E. (2020). Duration of abstinence from cannabis is positively associated with verbal learning performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology, 34, 359–372.Google Scholar
Larsen, B., and Luna, B. (2018). Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 94, 179–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lisdahl, K. M., and Price, J. S. (2012). Increased marijuana use and gender predict poorer cognitive functioning in adolescents and emerging adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 18, 678–688.Google Scholar
Lorenzetti, V., Chye, Y., Silva, P., et al. (2019). Does regular cannabis use affect neuroanatomy? An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 59–71.Google Scholar
Lorenzetti, V., Chye, Y., Suo, C., et al. (2020a). Neuroanatomical alterations in people with high and low cannabis dependence. Aust NZ J Psychiatry, 54, 68–75.Google Scholar
Lorenzetti, V., Hoch, E., and Hall, W. (2020b). Adolescent cannabis use, cognition, brain health and educational outcomes: A review of the evidence. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 36, 169–180.Google Scholar
Lorenzetti, V., Takagi, M., Van Dalen, Y., et al. (2021). Investigating the residual effects of chronic cannabis use and abstinence on verbal and visuospatial learning. Front Psychiatry, 12, 663701.Google Scholar
Lovell, M. E., Akhurst, J., Padgett, C., et al. (2020). Cognitive outcomes associated with long-term, regular, recreational cannabis use in adults: A meta-analysis. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 28, 471–494.Google Scholar
Lubman, D. I., Cheetham, A., and Yücel, M. (2015). Cannabis and adolescent brain development. Pharmacol Ther, 148, 1–16.Google Scholar
Ma, L., Steinberg, J. L., Bjork, J. M., et al. (2018). Fronto-striatal effective connectivity of working memory in adults with cannabis use disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging, 278, 21–34.Google Scholar
Mason, N. L., Theunissen, E. L., Hutten, N. R. P. W., et al. (2021). Reduced responsiveness of the reward system is associated with tolerance to cannabis impairment in chronic users. Addict Biol, 26, e12870.Google Scholar
Matheson, J., and Le Foll, B. (2020). Cannabis legalization and acute harm from high potency cannabis products: A narrative review and recommendations for public health. Front Psychiatry, 11, 1017.Google Scholar
McCartney, D., Arkell, T. R., Irwin, C., et al. (2021). Determining the magnitude and duration of acute δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (δ(9)-THC)-induced driving and cognitive impairment: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 126, 175–193.Google Scholar
Medina, K. L., Hanson, K. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., et al. (2007). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: Subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 13, 807–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., et al. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. PNAS, 109, E2657–E2664.Google Scholar
Metrik, J., Kahler, C. W., Reynolds, B., et al. (2012). Balanced placebo design with marijuana: Pharmacological and expectancy effects on impulsivity and risk taking. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 223, 489–499.Google Scholar
Mizrahi, R., Watts, J. J., and Tseng, K. Y. (2017). Mechanisms contributing to cognitive deficits in cannabis users. Neuropharmacology, 124, 84–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moeller, S. J., Bederson, L., Alia-Klein, N., et al. (2016). Neuroscience of inhibition for addiction medicine: From prediction of initiation to prediction of relapse. Prog Brain Res, 223, 165–188.Google Scholar
Moreno, M., Estevez, A. F., Zaldivar, F., et al. (2012). Impulsivity differences in recreational cannabis users and binge drinkers in a university population. Drug Alcohol Depend, 124, 355–362.Google Scholar
Morgan, C. J. A., Freeman, T. P., Hindocha, C., et al. (2018). Individual and combined effects of acute delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on psychotomimetic symptoms and memory function. Transl Psychiatry, 8, 181.Google Scholar
Morgan, C. J. A., Freeman, T. P., Schafer, G. L., et al. (2010). Cannabidiol attenuates the appetitive effects of δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans smoking their chosen cannabis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 1879–1885.Google Scholar
Morin, J.-F. G., Afzali, M. H., Bourque, J., et al. (2018). A population-based analysis of the relationship between substance use and adolescent cognitive development. Am J Psychiatry, 176, 98–106.Google Scholar
Muetzel, R. L., Marjańska, M., Collins, P. F., et al. (2013). In vivo 1h magnetic resonance spectroscopy in young-adult daily marijuana users. Neuroimage Clin, 2, 581–589.Google Scholar
Murray, R. M., Englund, A., Abi-Dargham, A., et al. (2017). Cannabis-associated psychosis: Neural substrate and clinical impact. Neuropharmacology, 124, 89–104.Google Scholar
Nader, D. A., and Sanchez, Z. M. (2018). Effects of regular cannabis use on neurocognition, brain structure, and function: A systematic review of findings in adults. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 44, 4–18.Google Scholar
Niesink, R. J., and van Laar, M. W. (2013). Does cannabidiol protect against adverse psychological effects of THC? Front Psychiatry, 4, 130.Google Scholar
O’Neill, A., Bachi, B., and Bhattacharyya, S. (2020). Attentional bias towards cannabis cues in cannabis users: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 206, 107719.Google Scholar
Oomen, P. P., Van Hell, H. H., and Bossong, M. G. (2018). The acute effects of cannabis on human executive function. Behav Pharmacol, 29, 605–616.Google Scholar
Ortega-Mora, I. E., Caballero-Sánchez, U., Román-López, T. V., et al. (2021). The alerting and orienting systems of attention are modified by cannabis dependence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 27, 520–532.Google Scholar
Owens, M. M., Mcnally, S., Petker, T., et al. (2019). Urinary tetrahydrocannabinol is associated with poorer working memory performance and alterations in associated brain activity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44, 613–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paige, K. J., and Colder, C. R. (2020). Long-term effects of early adolescent marijuana use on attentional and inhibitory control. J Stud Alcohol Drugs, 81, 164–172.Google Scholar
Petker, T., Owens, M. M., Amlung, M. T., et al. (2019). Cannabis involvement and neuropsychological performance: Findings from the human connectome project. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 44, 414–422.Google Scholar
Plitman, E., Nakajima, S., De La Fuente-Sandoval, C., et al. (2014). Glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in schizophrenia: A review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 24, 1591–1605.Google Scholar
Potter, D. J., Hammond, K., Tuffnell, S., et al. (2018). Potency of δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2016: Implications for public health and pharmacology. Drug Testing Anal, 10, 628–635.Google Scholar
Prescot, A. P., Renshaw, P. F., and Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2013). γ-amino butyric acid and glutamate abnormalities in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend, 129, 232–239.Google Scholar
Prini, P., Zamberletti, E., Manenti, C., et al. (2020). Neurobiological mechanisms underlying cannabis-induced memory impairment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 36, 181–190.Google Scholar
Ramaekers, J. G., Mason, N. L., Kloft, L., et al. (2021). The why behind the high: Determinants of neurocognition during acute cannabis exposure. Nat Rev Neurosci, 22, 439–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramaekers, J. G., Mason, N. L., and Theunissen, E. L. (2020). Blunted highs: Pharmacodynamic and behavioral models of cannabis tolerance. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 36, 191–205.Google Scholar
Ramaekers, J. G., Van Wel, J. H., Spronk, D. B., et al. (2016). Cannabis and tolerance: Acute drug impairment as a function of cannabis use history. Sci Rep, 6, 26843–26843.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranganathan, M., Radhakrishnan, R., Addy, P. H., et al. (2017). Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs encoding but not retrieval of verbal information. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 79, 176–183.Google Scholar
Rangel-Pacheco, A., Lew, B. J., Schantell, M. D., et al. (2021). Altered fronto-occipital connectivity during visual selective attention in regular cannabis users. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 238, 1351–1361.Google Scholar
Riba, J., Valle, M., Sampedro, F., et al. (2015). Telling true from false: Cannabis users show increased susceptibility to false memories. Mol Psychiatry, 20, 772–777.Google Scholar
Roten, A., Baker, N. L., and Gray, K. M. (2015). Cognitive performance in a placebo-controlled pharmacotherapy trial for youth with marijuana dependence. Addict Behav, 45, 119–123.Google Scholar
Sagar, K. A., and Gruber, S. A. (2018). Marijuana matters: Reviewing the impact of marijuana on cognition, brain structure and function, & exploring policy implications and barriers to research. Int Rev Psychiatry, 30, 251–267.Google Scholar
Sami, M. B., Rabiner, E. A., and Bhattacharyya, S. (2015). Does cannabis affect dopaminergic signaling in the human brain? A systematic review of evidence to date. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 25, 1201–1224.Google Scholar
Schlienz, N. J., Spindle, T. R., Cone, E. J., et al. (2020). Pharmacodynamic dose effects of oral cannabis ingestion in healthy adults who infrequently use cannabis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 211, 107969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoedel, K. A., Addy, C., Chakraborty, B., et al. (2012). Human abuse potential and cognitive effects of taranabant, a cannabinoid 1 receptor inverse agonist: A randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, crossover study in recreational polydrug users. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 32, 492–502.Google Scholar
Schoedel, K. A., Chen, N., Hilliard, A., et al. (2011). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study to evaluate the subjective abuse potential and cognitive effects of nabiximols oromucosal spray in subjects with a history of recreational cannabis use. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp, 26, 224–236.Google Scholar
Schoeler, T., Kambeitz, J., Behlke, I., et al. (2016). The effects of cannabis on memory function in users with and without a psychotic disorder: Findings from a combined meta-analysis. Psychol Med, 46, 177–188.Google Scholar
Scofield, M. D., Heinsbroek, J. A., Gipson, C. D., et al. (2016). The nucleus accumbens: Mechanisms of addiction across drug classes reflect the importance of glutamate homeostasis. Pharmacol Rev, 68, 816.Google Scholar
Scott, J. C., Slomiak, S. T., Jones, J. D., et al. (2018). Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 75, 585–595.Google Scholar
Scott, J. C., Wolf, D. H., Calkins, M. E., et al. (2017). Cognitive functioning of adolescent and young adult cannabis users in the Philadelphia neurodevelopmental cohort. Psychol Addict Behav, 31, 423–434.Google Scholar
Sholler, D. J., Strickland, J. C., Spindle, T. R., et al. (2021). Sex differences in the acute effects of oral and vaporized cannabis among healthy adults. Addict Biol, 26, e12968.Google Scholar
Smith, J. L., De Blasio, F. M., Iredale, J. M., et al. (2017). Verbal learning and memory in cannabis and alcohol users: An event-related potential investigation. Front Psychol, 8, 2129.Google Scholar
Sneider, J. T., Gruber, S. A., Rogowska, J., et al. (2013). A preliminary study of functional brain activation among marijuana users during performance of a virtual water maze task. J Addict, 2013, 461029.Google Scholar
Solowij, N., Broyd, S., Greenwood, L.-M., et al. (2019). A randomised controlled trial of vaporised δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol alone and in combination in frequent and infrequent cannabis users: Acute intoxication effects. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 269, 17–35.Google Scholar
Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., et al. (2011). Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-users. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 216, 131–144.Google Scholar
Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., et al. (2012). Reflection impulsivity in adolescent cannabis users: A comparison with alcohol-using and non-substance-using adolescents. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 219, 575–586.Google Scholar
Solowij, N., and Pesa, N. (2011). Cannabis and cognition: Short- and long-term effects. In Castle, D., Murray, R., and D’Souza, D. (eds.) Marijuana and Madness (pp. 91–102). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Spindle, T. R., Kuwabara, H., Eversole, A., et al. (2021). Brain imaging of cannabinoid type I (CB1) receptors in women with cannabis use disorder and male and female healthy controls. Addict Biol, 26, e13061.Google Scholar
Spronk, D. B., De Bruijn, E. R. A., Van Wel, J. H. P., et al. (2016). Acute effects of cocaine and cannabis on response inhibition in humans: An erp investigation. Addict Biol, 21, 1186–1198.Google Scholar
Subbaraman, M. S., and Kerr, W. C. (2021). Cannabis use frequency, route of administration, and co-use with alcohol among older adults in Washington State. J Cannabis Res, 3, 17.Google Scholar
Tait, R. J., Mackinnon, A., and Christensen, H. (2011). Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8-year trajectory in a young adult cohort. Addiction, 106, 2195–2203.Google Scholar
Takakuwa, K. M., and Schears, R. M. (2021). The emergency department care of the cannabis and synthetic cannabinoid patient: A narrative review. Int J Emerg Med, 14, 10.Google Scholar
Tamnes, C. K., Herting, M. M., Goddings, A. L., et al. (2017). Development of the cerebral cortex across adolescence: A multisample study of inter-related longitudinal changes in cortical volume, surface area, and thickness. J Neurosci, 37, 3402–3412.Google Scholar
Thames, A. D., Arbid, N., and Sayegh, P. (2014). Cannabis use and neurocognitive functioning in a non-clinical sample of users. Addict Behav, 39, 994–999.Google Scholar
Theunissen, E. L., Heckman, P., de Sousa Fernandes Perna, E. B., et al. (2015). Rivastigmine but not vardenafil reverses cannabis-induced impairment of verbal memory in healthy humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 232, 343–353.Google Scholar
Theunissen, E. L., Kauert, G. F., Toennes, S. W., et al. (2012). Neurophysiological functioning of occasional and heavy cannabis users during THC intoxication. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 220, 341–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2016). World Drug Report 2016 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.16.XI.7). New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6). New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Van Kampen, A.D., Cousijn, J., Engel, C., et al. (2020). Attentional bias, craving and cannabis use in an inpatient sample of adolescents and young adults diagnosed with cannabis use disorder: The moderating role of cognitive control. Addict Behav, 100, 106126.Google Scholar
Van Wel, J. H. P., Kuypers, K. P. C., Theunissen, E. L., et al. (2013). Single doses of THC and cocaine decrease proficiency of impulse control in heavy cannabis users. Br J Pharmacol, 170, 1410–1420.Google Scholar
Vandrey, R., Herrmann, E. S., Mitchell, J. M., et al. (2017). Pharmacokinetic profile of oral cannabis in humans: Blood and oral fluid disposition and relation to pharmacodynamic outcomes. J Anal Toxicol, 41, 83–99.Google Scholar
Vandrey, R., Stitzer, M. L., Mintzer, M. Z., et al. (2013). The dose effects of short-term dronabinol (oral THC) maintenance in daily cannabis users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 128, 64–70.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Baler, R. D., Compton, W. M., et al. (2014). Adverse health effects of marijuana use. N Engl J Med, 370, 2219–2227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vujanovic, A. A., Wardle, M. C., Liu, S., et al. (2016). Attentional bias in adults with cannabis use disorders. J Addict Dis, 35, 144–153.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, E. J., Moss, S. C., Simpson, S. A., et al. (2006). Cannabis use, cognitive performance and mood in a sample of workers. J Psychopharmacol, 20, 14–23.Google Scholar
Wallace, A. L., Maple, K. E., Barr, A. T., et al. (2020). Bold responses to inhibition in cannabis-using adolescents and emerging adults after 2 weeks of monitored cannabis abstinence. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 237, 3259–3268.Google Scholar
Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ahti, M., et al. (2017). A latent factor analysis of working memory measures using large-scale data. Front Psychol, 8, 1062.Google Scholar
Wesnes, K. A., Annas, P., Edgar, C. J., et al. (2009). Nabilone produces marked impairments to cognitive function and changes in subjective state in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol, 24, 1659–1669.Google Scholar
Wittemann, M., Brielmaier, J., Rubly, M., et al. (2021). Cognition and cortical thickness in heavy cannabis users. Eur Addict Res, 27, 115–122.Google Scholar
Woelfl, T., Rohleder, C., Mueller, J. K., et al. (2020). Effects of cannabidiol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on emotion, cognition, and attention: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized experimental trial in healthy volunteers. Front Psychiatry, 11, 576877.Google Scholar
Wrege, J., Schmidt, A., Walter, A., et al. (2014). Effects of cannabis on impulsivity: A systematic review of neuroimaging findings. Curr Pharm Des, 20, 2126–2137.Google Scholar
Zachry, J. E., Nolan, S. O., Brady, L. J., et al. (2021). Sex differences in dopamine release regulation in the striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology, 46, 491–499.Google Scholar
Zamberletti, E., Gabaglio, M., Grilli, M., et al. (2016). Long-term hippocampal glutamate synapse and astrocyte dysfunctions underlying the altered phenotype induced by adolescent THC treatment in male rats. Pharmacol Res, 111, 459–470.Google Scholar
Zhang, M., Fung, D. S. S., and Smith, H. (2020). A literature review of attentional biases amongst individuals with substance dependency: Individual differences and modulating factors. Psychiatry Intl, 1, 125–134.Google Scholar
Zhornitsky, S., Pelletier, J., Assaf, R., et al. (2021). Acute effects of partial CB(1) receptor agonists on cognition: A meta-analysis of human studies. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 104, 110063.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×