Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T23:31:26.325Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

26 - Explosive Events

from SECTION A - CBRNE AND HAZMAT

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2011

By
John M. Wightman  and
Chetan U. Kharod
Edited by
Kristi L. Koenig  and
Carl H. Schultz
Kristi L. Koenig
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine
Carl H. Schultz
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine
Get access

Summary

The opinions and assertions herein are the private views of the authors and are not to be construed as official or as reflecting the view of the United States government, Department of Defense, or Department of the Air Force. This is in part a government work. There are no restrictions on its use.

OVERVIEW

Explosive events occur in many settings. They can have a variety of etiologies, which can be accidental or intentional. Many blasts damage only property, but every explosion can be classified as a potential injury-creating event (PICE). It is the human impact with which this chapter is mostly concerned. Injuries may occur to individuals or groups. Massive and multiple explosions may affect entire communities or larger regions, resulting in a disaster situation. According to Noji, “A disaster is defined as a natural or manmade event that results in an imbalance between the supply and demand for existing resources.”

Most explosive events are unlikely to result in major catastrophes, as defined by Lumley and Ryan, “where the social fabric of a society is disrupted and the medical infrastructure fails.” Some important exceptions exist, however. A single bombing of the only hospital in a region may cause temporary failure of that local healthcare system, until external resources can be mobilized. Multiple, intentional explosions specifically targeting critical services may impact a larger population to a greater degree. A nuclear detonation would likely disable much of a city's infrastructure.

Keywords

blast exposureexplosive eventshealthcare systemssurge capacitylocal medical respondersproblem-specific training
Type
Chapter
Information
Koenig and Schultz's Disaster Medicine
Comprehensive Principles and Practices
 , pp. 393 - 422
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Schultz, CH, Koenig, KL, Noji, EK. Disaster preparedness. In: Marx, JA, Hockberger, RS, Walls, RM, et al., eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby; 2006:3010–3021.
Noji, EK. The Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Cambridge, UK: Oxford University; 1996.
Lumley, JSP, Ryan, JM, Baxter, PJ, Kirby, N. Disasters and catastrophes. In: Lumley, JSP, Ryan, JM, Baxter, PJ, Kirby, N., eds. Handbook of the Medical Care of Catastrophes. London: Royal Society of Medicine; 1996:1–8.
Lacy, TJ and Benedek, DM. Psychological impact of terrorism. In: Roy, MJ, ed. Physician's Guide to Terrorist Attack. Totowa, NJ: Humana; 2004:379–390.
Larkin, GL, Woody, J. Psychological impact of terrorism. In: Keyes, DC, Burnstein, JL, Schwartz, RB, Swienton, RE., eds. Medical Response to Terrorism: Preparedness and Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005:389–400.
Wimbush, TE, Courban, CC. Psychological impact of disaster. In: Ciottone, GR, Anderson, PD, Auf, Heide E, et al., eds. Disaster Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby; 2006:59–62.
Oster, NS, Doyle, CJ. Critical incident stress. In: Hogan, , Burstein, JL, eds., Disaster Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:64–71.
Kapur, GB, Hutson, HR, Davis, MA, Rice, PL. The United States twenty-year experience with bombing incidents: implications for terrorism preparedness and medical response. J Trauma. 2005;59:1436–1444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makitie, I, Paloneva, H, Tikka, S. Explosion injuries in Finland 1991–1995. Ann Chir Gynaecol. 1997;86:209–213.Google Scholar
Hamit, HF. Primary blast injuries. Ind Med Surg. 1973;42:14–21.Google Scholar
Hull, D, Grindlinger, GA, Hirsch, EF, et al. The clinical consequences of an industrial aerosol plant explosion. J Trauma. 1985;25:303–308.Google Scholar
Zane, DF, Preece, MJ. Study of the Phillips tragedy gives insights into etiologies of plant blast injuries. Occup Health Safety. 1992;61:34,36,38–40.Google Scholar
Chen, XL, Wang, YJ, Wang, CR, Li, SS. Gunpowder explosion burns in fireworks factory: causes of death and management. Burns. 2002;28:655–658.Google Scholar
See, LC, Lo, SK. Epidemiology of fireworks injuries: the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, 1980–1989. Ann Emerg Med. 1994;24:46–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abdulwadud, O, Ozanne-Smith, J. Injuries associated with fireworks in Victoria: an epidemiological overview. Inj Prev 1998;4:272–275.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fireworks injuries in the United States. MMWR. 2000;49:545–546.Google Scholar
Jorm, L. Firework injuries in New South Wales,1992–93 to 2001–02. NSW Public Health Bull. 2003;14:110–113.Google Scholar
Witsaman, RJ, Comstock, RD, Smith, GA. Pediatric fireworks-related injuries in the United States: 1990–2003. Pediatrics. 2006;118:296–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huller, T, Bazini, Y. Blast injuries of the chest and abdomen. Arch Surg. 1970;100:24–30.Google Scholar
Caro, D, Irving, M. The Old Bailey bomb explosion. Lancet. 1973;1:1433–1435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker, K, Lettin, A. The Tower of London bomb explosion. Lancet. 1975;1:287–289.Google Scholar
Waterworth, TA, Carr, MJT. Report on injuries sustained by patients treated at the Birmingham General Hospital following the recent bomb explosions. Br Med J. 1975;2:25–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waterworth, TA, Carr, MJT. An analysis of the post-mortem findings in the 21 victims of the Birmingham pub bombings. Injury. 1975;7:89–95.Google Scholar
Brismar, B, Bergenwald, L. The terrorist bomb explosion in Bologna, Italy, 1980: an analysis of the effects and injuries sustained. J Trauma. 1982;22:216–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, JV. Anatomy of a terrorist attack: the Cu Chi mess hall incident. J World Assoc Emerg Disaster Med. 1986;2:69–73.Google Scholar
Boehm, TM, James, JJ. The medical response to the LaBelle Disco bombing in Berlin, 1986. Mil Med. 1988;153:235–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frykberg, ER, Tepas, JJ, Alexander, RH. The 1983 Beirut Airport terrorist bombing: injury patterns and implications for disaster management. Am Surg. 1989;55:134–141.Google Scholar
Katz, E, Ofek, B Adler, J, et al. Primary blast injury after a bomb explosion in a civilian bus. Ann Surg. 1989;209:484–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Morell PA, Escudero, Naif F, Palao, Domenech R, et al. Burns caused by the terrorist bombing of the department store Hipercor in Barcelona: part 1. Burns. 1990;16:423–425.Google Scholar
Jimenez-Hernandez, FH, Lliro, Blasco E, Leiva, Oliva R, et al. Burns caused by the terrorist bombing of the department store Hipercor in Barcelona: part 2. Burns. 1990;16:426–431.Google Scholar
Hodgets, TJ. Lessons from the Musgrave Park Hospital bombing. Injury. 1993;24:219–221.Google Scholar
Mallonee, S, Shariat, S, Stennies, G, et al. Physical injuries and fatalities resulting from the Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA. 1996;276:382–387.Google Scholar
Carley, SD, Mackway-Jones, K. The casualty profile from the Manchester bombing 1996: a proposal for the construction and dissemination of casualty profiles from major incidents. J Accid Emerg Med. 1997;14:76–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, SJ, Carter, GE. The Omagh bombing – a medical perspective. J R Army Med Corps. 2000;146:18–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almogy, G, Belzberg, H, Mintz, Y, et al. Suicide bombing attacks: update and modifications to the protocol. Ann Surg. 2004;239:295–303.Google Scholar
Avitzour, M, Lidergal, M, Assaf, J, et al. A multicasualty event: out-of-hospital and in-hospital organizational aspects. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11:1102–1104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, D, Brown, S, Mallonee, S, Sunshine, D. Fatal and non-fatal injuries among U.S. Air Force personnel resulting from the terrorist bombing of the Khobar Towers. J Trauma. 2004;57:208–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leiba, A, Halpern, P, Kotler, D, et al. Case study of the terrorist bombing in Tel Aviv market – putting all the eggs in one basket might save lives. Int J Disast Med. 2005;2:157–160.Google Scholar
Peral-Gutierrez, deCeballos J, Turégano-Fuentes, F, Pérez-Diaz, D, et al. 11 March 2004: The terrorist bomb explosions in Madrid, Spain – an analysis of the logistics, injuries sustained and clinical management of casualties treated at the closest hospital. Crit Care. 2005;9:104–111.Google Scholar
Lockey, DJ, MacKenzie, R, Redhead, J, et al. London bombings July 2005: the immediate pre-hospital medical response. Resuscitation. 2005;66:ix–xii.Google Scholar
Zafar, H, Rehmani, R, Chawla, T, et al. Suicidal bus bombing of French Nationals in Pakistan: physical injuries and management of survivors. Eur J Emerg Med. 2005;12:163–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leiba, A, Halpern, P, Priel, IE, et al. A terrorist suicide bombing at a nightclub in Tel Aviv: analyzing response to a nighttime, weekend, multi-casualty incident. J Emerg Nurs. 2006;32:294–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malik, ZU, Hanif, MS, Tariq, M, et al. Mass casualty management after a suicidal terrorist attack on a religious procession in Quetta, Pakistan. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2006;16:253–6.Google Scholar
Rutherford, WH. Experience in the accident and emergency department of the Royal Victoria Hospital with patients from civil disturbances in Belfast 1969–1972, with a review of disasters in the United Kingdom 1951–1971. Injury. 1972;4:189–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadden, WA, Rutherford, WH, Merrett, JD. The injuries of terrorist bombing: a study of 1532 consecutive patients. Br J Surg. 1978;65:525–531.Google Scholar
Pyper, PC, Graham, WJH. Analysis of terrorist injuries treated at Craigavon Area Hospital, Northern Ireland, 1972–1980. Injury. 1983;14:332–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, J, Golan, E, Golan, J, et al. Terrorist bombing experience during 1975–79: casualties admitted to the Shaare Zedek Medical Center. Isr J Med Sci. 1983;19:189–193.Google Scholar
Rodoplu, U, Arnold, JL, Tokyay, R, et al. Mass-casualty terrorist bombings in Istanbul, Turkey, November 2003: report of the events and the prehospital emergency response. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2004;19:133–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen-Smith, MS. A computerized data retrieval system for the wounds of war: the Northern Ireland casualties. J R Army Med Corps. 1981;127:31–54.Google Scholar
Mellor, SG, Cooper, GJ. Analysis of 828 servicemen killed or injured by explosion in Northern Ireland 1970–84: the Hostile Action Casualty System. Br J Surg. 1989;76:1006–1010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aharonson-Daniel, L, Klein, Y, Peleg, K. Suicide bombers form a new injury profile. Ann Surg. 2006;244:1018–1023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noji, EK, Lee, CY, Davis, T, Peleg, K. Investigation of Federal Bureau of Investigation bomb-related death and injury data in the United States between 1988 and 1997. Mil Med. 2005;170:595–598.Google Scholar
Dellinger, AM, Waxweiler, RJ, Mallonee, S. Injuries to rescue workers following the Oklahoma City bombing. Am J Ind Med. 1997;31:727–732.Google Scholar
Quintana, DA, Parker, JR, Jordan, FB, et al. The spectrum of pediatric injuries after a bomb blast. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32:307–311; errata 932.Google Scholar
Hogan, , Waeckerle, JF, Dire, DJ, et al. Emergency department impact of the Oklahoma City terrorist bombing. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34:160–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nixon, SJ, Schorr, J, Boudreaux, A, Vincent, RD. Perceived effects and recovery in Oklahoma City firefighters. J Okla State Med Assoc. 1999;92:172–177.Google Scholar
Shariat, S, Mallonee, S, Kruger, E, et al. A prospective study of long-term health outcomes among Oklahoma City bombing survivors. J Okla State Med Assoc. 1999;92:178–186.Google Scholar
Smith, DW, Christiansen, EH, Vincent, R, Hann, NE. Population effects of the bombing of Oklahoma City. J Okla State Med Assoc. 1999;92:193–198.Google Scholar
Campen, , Dennis, JM, King, SB, et al. One-year vestibular and balance outcomes of Oklahoma City bombing survivors. J Am Acad Audiol. 1999;10:467–483.Google Scholar
Mines, M, Thach, A, Mallonee, S, et al. Ocular injuries sustained by survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:837–843.Google Scholar
Tucker, P, Pfefferbaum, B, Nixon, SJ, Dickson, W. Predictors of post-traumatic stress symptoms in Oklahoma City: exposure, social support, peri-traumatic responses. J Behav Health Serv Res. 2000;27:406–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sprang, G. Vicarious stress: patterns of disturbance and use of mental health services by those indirectly affected by the Oklahoma City bombing. Psychol Rep. 2001;89:331–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, CS, Tivis, L, McMillen, JC, et al. Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:857–859.Google Scholar
North, CS, Tivis, L, McMillen, JC, et al. Coping, functioning, and adjustment of rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. J Trauma Stress. 2002;15:171–175.Google Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B, Doughty, , Reddy, C, et al. Exposure and peritraumatic response as predictors of posttraumatic stress in children following the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. J Urban Health. 2002;79:354–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfefferbaum, B, North, CS, Bunch, K, et al. The impact of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing on the partners of firefighters. J Urban Health. 2002;79:364–372.Google Scholar
Tucker, P, Pfefferbaum, B, Doughty, , et al. Body handlers after terrorism in Oklahoma City: predictors of posttraumatic stress and other symptoms. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2002;72:469–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, CS, Pfefferbaum, B, Tivis, L, et al. The course of posttraumatic stress disorder in a follow-up study of survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2004;16:209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodgers, JL, St John, CA, Coleman, R. Did fertility go up after the Oklahoma City bombing? An analysis of births in metropolitan counties in Oklahoma, 1990–1999. Demography. 2005;42:675–692.Google Scholar
Quick, G. A paradigm for multidisciplinary disaster research: the Oklahoma City experience. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:621–630.Google Scholar
North, CS. The Oklahoma City bombing study and methodological issues in longitudinal disaster mental health research. J Trauma Dissoc. 2005;6:27–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kluger, Y. Bomb explosions in acts of terrorism – detonation, wound ballistics, triage and medical concerns. Isr Med Assn J. 2003;5:235–40.Google Scholar
Bailey, A, Murray, SG. The explosion process: detonation shock effects. In: Explosives, Propellants, and Pyrotechnics. London: Brassey; 1989:1–19.
Bailey, A, Murray, SG. The chemistry and physics of explosions. In: Explosives, Propellants, and Pyrotechnics. London: Brassey; 1989:21–47.
Wightman, JM, Gladish, SL. Explosions and blast injuries. Ann Emerg Med 2001;37:664–678.Google Scholar
Stuhmiller, JH, Phillips, YY, Richmond, DR. The physics and mechanisms of primary blast injury. In: Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R, eds. Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1991:241–270.
Iremonger, MJ. Physics of detonations and blast-waves. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:189–199.
Alt, , Forcino, CD, Walker, RI. Nuclear events and their consequences In: Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R, eds. Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1991:1–14.
Dearden, P. New blast weapons. J R Army Med Corps. 2001;147:80–86.Google Scholar
Mellor, SG. The relationship of blast loading to death and injury from explosion. World J Surg. 1992;16:893–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yelverton, JT. Blast biology. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:200–213.
Cooper, GJ, Townend, DJ, Cater, SR, et al. The role of stress waves in thoracic visceral injury from blast loading: modification of stress transmission by foams and high-density materials. J Biomech. 1991;24:273–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clemedson, C-J, Pettersson, H. Propagation of a high explosive air shock wave through different parts of an animal body. Am J Physiol. 1956;184:119–126.Google Scholar
Young, AJ, Phillips, YY, Jaeger, JJ, et al. The influence of airway pressure on lung injury resulting from airblast. Mil Med. 1985;150:31–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuhmiller, JH. Biological response to blast overpressure: a summary of modeling. Toxicology. 1997;121:91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuhmiller, JH. Blast injury: translating research into operational medicine. In: Santee, WR, Friedl, KE, eds. Quantitative Physiology: Concepts in Military Operational Medicine. Washington, DC: Borden Institute. Available as an advance chapter at http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/blast_injury/blast_injury.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Wolf, SJ, Bebarta, VS, Bonnett, CJ, et al. Blast injuries. Lancet, Published online July 23, 2009. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60257-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DePalma, RG, Burris, DG, Champion, HR, Hodgson, MJ. Blast injuries. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1335–1342.Google Scholar
Severance, HW. Emergency management of blast injuries. Crit Decis Emerg Med. 2006;20(8):2–11.Google Scholar
Sorkin, P, Nimrod, A, Biderman, P, et al. The quinary (Vth) injury pattern of blast. J Trauma. 2004;56:232–236.Google Scholar
, Kluger Y, Nimrod, A, Biderman, P, et al. The quinary pattern of blast injury. Am J Disaster Med. 2007;2:21–25.Google Scholar
Wiener, SL, Barrett, J. Explosions and explosive device-related injuries. In: Trauma Management for Civilian and Military Physicians. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1986:13–26.
Richmond, DR, Yelverton, JT, Fletcher, ER, et al. Physical correlates of eardrum rupture. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1989;98(Suppl 140):35–41.Google Scholar
Garth, RJN. Blast injury of the ear. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:225–235.
Wright, RK. Death or injury caused by explosion. Clin Lab Med. 1983;3:309–319.Google Scholar
Kerr, AG, Byrne, JET. Concussive effects of bomb blast on the ear. J Laryngol Otol. 1975;89:131–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberto, M, Hamernik, RP, Turrentine, GA. Damage of the auditory system associated with acute blast trauma. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1989;98(Suppl 140):23–34.Google Scholar
Sharpnack, DD, Johnson, AJ, Phillips, YY. The pathology of primary blast injury. In: Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R, eds. Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1991:271–294.
Barrow, DW, Rhoads, HT. Blast concussion injury. J Am Med Assn. 1944;125:900–902.Google Scholar
Waterworth, TA, Carr, MJ. Surgery of violence: report on injuries sustained by patients treated at the Birmingham General Hospital following the recent bomb explosions. Br Med J. 1975;2:25–27.Google Scholar
Singh, D, Ahluwalia, KJS. Blast injuries of the ear. J Laryngol Otol. 1968;82:1017–1028.Google Scholar
Beiran, I, Miller, B. Pure ocular blast injury. Am J Ophthalmol 1992;114:504–505. (Letter)Google Scholar
Barack, A, Verssano, D, Halpern, P, Lowenstein, A. Ophthalmologists, suicide bombings and getting it right in the emergency department. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:199–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wightman, JM. Blast injuries. In: Yevich, S, Whitlock, W, Broadhurst, R, Thompson, GD, eds. Special Operations Forces Medical Handbook. Fort Gordon, GA: Center for Total Access; 2001:7-23–7-26.
Mayorga, MA. The pathology of primary blast overpressure injury. Toxicology. 1997;121:17–28.Google Scholar
Axelsson, H, Yelverton, JT. Chest wall velocity as a predictor of nonauditory blast injury in a complex wave environment. J Trauma. 1996;40(3 Suppl):S31–7.Google Scholar
Clemedson, C-J, Hultman, HI, Odont, B. Air embolism and the cause of death in blast injury. Mil Surg. 1954;114;424–437.Google Scholar
Yee, ES, Verrier, ED, Thomas, AN. Management of air embolism in blunt and penetrating thoracic trauma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1983;85:661–667; discussion 667–668.Google Scholar
Pizov, R, Oppenheim-Eden, A, Matot I, et al. Blast lung injury from an explosion on a civilian bus. Chest. 1999;115:165–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Argyros, GJ. Management of primary blast injury. Toxicology. 1997;121:105–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, YY, Zajtchuk, JT. The management of primary blast injury. In: Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R, eds. Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1991:295–335.
Maynard, RL, Coppel, DL, Lowry, KG. Blast injury of the lung. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:214–224.
Benzinger, T. Physiological effects of blast in air and water. In German Aviation Medicine: World War II. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Air Force; 1950:1225–1259.
Cooper, GJ, Maynard, RL, Cross, NL, Hill, JF. Casualties from terrorist bombings. J Trauma. 1983;23:955–967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leibovici, D, Gofrit, ON, Stein, M, et al. Blast injuries: bus versus open-air bombings – a comparative study of injuries in survivors of open-air versus confined-space explosions. J Trauma. 1996;41:1030–1035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, GR, Short, RHD, Wakely, CPG. Abdominal injuries due to underwater explosion. Br J Surg. 1943;31:51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huller, T, Bazini, Y. Blast injuries of the chest and abdomen. Arch Surg. 1970;100:24–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheim, A, Pizov, R, Pikarsky, A, et al. Tension pneumoperitoneum after blast injury: dramatic improvement in ventilatory and hemodynamic parameters after surgical decompression. J Trauma. 1998;44:915–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paran, H, Neufeld, D, Shwartz, I, et al. Perforation of the terminal ileum induced by blast injury: delayed diagnosis or delayed perforation? J Trauma. 1996;40:472–475.Google Scholar
Tatić, V, Ignjatović, D, Jevtić, M, et al. Morphological characteristics of primary nonperforative intestinal blast injuries in rats and their evolution to secondary perforations. J Trauma. 1996;40(3 Suppl):S94–99.Google Scholar
Cripps, NPJ, Cooper, GJ. Risk of late perforation in intestinal contusions caused by explosive blast. Br J Surg. 1997;84:1298–1303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cernak, I, Wang, Z, Jiang, J, et al. Ultrastructural and functional characteristics of blast injury-induced neurotrauma. J Trauma. 2001;50:695–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, L, Yang, KH, King, AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2004;126:226–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pecha, R, Gompf, B, Microimplosions: cavitation collapse and shock wave emission on a nanosecond time scale. Phys Rev Lett. 2000;84:1328–1330.Google Scholar
Weiss, U, Bacher, R, Vonbank, H, et al. Cognitive impairment: assessment with brain magnetic resonance imaging and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:235–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heidemann, SR, Buxbaum, RE. Mechanical tension as a regulator of axonal development. Neurotoxicology. 1994;15:95–107.Google Scholar
Patterson, JH, Hamernik, RP. Blast overpressurization induced structural and functional changes in the auditory system. Toxicology. 1997;121:29–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petras, JM, Bauman, RA, Elsayed, NM. Visual system degeneration induced by blast overpressure. Toxicology. 1997;121:41–49.Google Scholar
Soloviev, SP, Surkov, VV, Sweeney, JJ. Quadrupolar electromagnetic field from detonation of high explosive charges on the ground surface. J Geophys Res. 2002;107:2119. (Abstract)Google Scholar
Bochichio, GV, Lumpkins, K, O'Connor, J, et al. Blast injury in a civilian trauma setting is associated with a delay in diagnosis of traumatic brain injury. Am Surg. 2008;74:267–270.Google Scholar
,Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center. Military Acute Concussion Evaluation (MACE). Available at: http://www.dvbic.org/cms.php?p=Medical_care. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Durant, TM, Oppenheimer, MJ, Webster, MR, et al. Arterial air embolism. Am Heart J. 1943;38:481–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Desaga, H. Blast injuries. In German Aviation Medicine: World War II. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Air Force; 1950:1274–1293.
Irwin, RJ, Lerner, MR, Bealer, JF, et al. Cardiopulmonary physiology of primary blast injury. J Trauma. 1997;43:650–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irwin, RJ, Lerner, MR, Bealer, JF, et al. Shock after blast wave injury is caused by a vagally mediated reflex. J Trauma. 1999;47:105–110.Google Scholar
Clemedson C-J. Blast injury. Physiol Rev. 1956;36:336–354.
Cooper, GJ, Taylor, . Biophysics of impact injury to the chest and abdomen. J R Army Med Corps. 1989;135:58–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rignault, DP, Deligny, MC. The 1986 terrorist bombing experience in Paris. Ann Surg. 1989;209:368–373.Google Scholar
Hull, JB. Traumatic amputation by explosive blast: pattern of injury in survivors. Br J Surg. 1992;79:1303–1306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, JB, Bowyer, GW, Cooper, GJ, et al. Pattern of injury in those dying from traumatic amputation caused by bomb blast. Br J Surg. 1994;81:1132–1135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, JB, Cooper, GJ. Pattern and mechanism of traumatic amputation by explosive blast. J Trauma. 1996;40(3 Suppl):S198–205.Google Scholar
Stein, M, Hirshberg, A. Medical consequences of terrorism: the conventional weapon threat. Surg Clin North Am. 1999;79:1537–1552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einav, S, Feigenberg, Z, Weissman, C, et al. Evacuation priorities in mass casualty terror-related events: implications for contingency planning. Ann Surg. 239:304–310.
Singer, AJ, Singer, AH, Halpern, P, et al. Medical lessons from terror attacks in Israel. J Emerg Med. 2007;32:87–92.Google Scholar
Barbera, JA. Urban search and rescue. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1996;14:399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, M, Koenig, KL, Schultz, CH. Disaster triage: START, then SAVE – a new method of dynamic triage for victims of a catastrophic earthquake. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1996;11:117–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romig, LE. Pediatric triage: a system to JumpSTART your triage of young patients at MCIs. J Emerg Med Serv. 2002;27:52–58,60–63.Google Scholar
Hodgetts, TJ, Hall, J, Maconochie, I, Smart, C. Pediatric triage tape. Prehosp Immediate Care. 1998;2:155–159.Google Scholar
Wallis, , Carley, S. Validation of the Paediatric Triage Tape. Emerg Med J. 2006;23:47–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgetts, TJ, Mackaway-Jones, K, eds. Major Incident Medical Management and Support: The Practical Approach. Plymouth, MA: BMJ Publishing Group; 1995.
Nocera, A, Garner, A. An Australian mass casualty incident triage system for the future based on mistakes of the past: the Homebush Triage Standard. Aust N Z J Surg. 1999;69:603–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, A, Lee, A, Harrison, K, Schultz, CH. Comparative analysis of multiple-casualty incident triage algorithms. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;38:541–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Challen, K, Walter, D. Comparative validation of major incident triage systems using data from the London bombings July 7th 2005. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;51:531–532. (Abstract)Google Scholar
,American Medical Association. Basic Disaster Life Support: Provider Manual. Version 2.5. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2004.
,American Medical Association. Advanced Disaster Life Support: Provider Manual. Version 2.0. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2004.
Sacco, WJ, Navin, M, Fielder, EA. Precise formulation and evidence-based application of resource-constrained triage. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:759–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sacco, WJ, Navin, M, Waddell, RK, et al. A new resource-constrained triage method applied to victims of penetrating injury. J Trauma. 2007;63:316–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, EB, Schwartz, RB, Coule, PL, et al. Mass casualty triage: an evaluation of the data and development of a proposed national guideline. Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2008;2(Suppl 1):S25–34.Google Scholar
Hogan, , Lairet, JR. Triage. In: Hogan, , Burstein, JL, eds. Disaster Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:12–28.
Baker, MS. Creating order from chaos: part I: triage, initial care, and tactical considerations in mass casualty and disaster response. Mil Med. 2007;172:232–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frykberg, ER. Medical management of disaster and mass casualties from terrorist bombings: how can we cope? J Trauma. 2002;53:201–212.Google Scholar
Roccaforte, JD, Cushman, JG. Disaster preparedness, triage, and surge capacity for hospital definitive care areas: optimizing outcomes when demands exceed resources. Anesthesiol Clin. 2007;25:161–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, K, Aghababian, RV, Gans, L, Lewis, CP. Triage: techniques and applications in decisionmaking. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28:136–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waisman, Y, Amir, L, Mor, M, et al. Prehospital response and field triage in pediatric mass casualty incidents: the Israeli experience. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2006;7:52–58.Google Scholar
Thomas, SH, Harrison, T, Wedel, SK, Thomas, DP. Helicopter emergency medical services roles in disaster operations. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2000;4:338–344.Google Scholar
Wightman, JM, Gibbons, ME, Gebhart, ME, Brown, JE. Critical casualty evacuation from tactical settings. In: Schwartz, RB, McManus, JG, Swienton, RE, eds. Tactical Emergency Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:109–122.
,National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians. PHTLS Prehospital Trauma Life Support: Military Version, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby; 2006.
Butler, FK, Holcomb, JB, Giebner, SD, et al. Tactical combat casualty care 2007: evolving concepts and battlefield experience. Mil Med. 2007;172:1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schertz, MD, Johnson, T, Crawford, DM, Rayfield, J. Tactical combat casualty care. In: Schwartz, RB, McManus, JG, Swienton, RE, eds. Tactical Emergency Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:101–108.
Richey, SL. Tourniquets for the control of traumatic hemorrhage: a review of the literature. World J Emerg Surg. 2007;2:28–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Husum, H, Gilbert, M, Wisborg, T, et al. Prehospital tourniquets: there should be no controversy. J Trauma. 2004;56:214–215.Google Scholar
Mabry, RL. Tourniquet use on the battlefield. Mil Med. 2006;171:352–356.Google Scholar
Mabry, RL, McManus, JG. Prehospital advances in the management of severe penetrating trauma. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(7 Suppl):S258–266.Google Scholar
Lee, C, Porter, KM, Hodgetts, TJ. Tourniquet use in the civilian prehospital setting. Emerg Med J. 2007;24:584–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welling, DR, Burris, DG, Hutton, JE, et al. A balanced approach to tourniquet use: lessons learned and relearned. J Am Coll Surg. 2006;203:106–115.Google Scholar
Walters, TJ, Holcomb, JB, Cancio, LC, et al. Emergency tourniquets. J Am Coll Surg. 2007;204:185–186. (Letter)Google Scholar
Welling, D, Burris, DG, Hutton, JE, et al. Reply. J Am Coll Surg. 2007;204:186–187. (Letter)Google Scholar
Hill, JP, Montgomery, LD, Hooper, KW, Roy, . Evaluation of self-applied tourniquets for combat applications, second phase. Panama City, FL: Navy Experimental Diving Unit; 2007.
Neuffer, MC, McDivitt, J, Rose, D, et al. Hemostatic dressings for the first responder: a review. Mil Med. 2004;169:716–720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubota, H, Kubota, Y, Toyoda, Y, et al. Selective blind endobronchial intubation in children and adults. Anesthesiology 1987;67:587–589.Google Scholar
AM-H, Ho, Ling, E. Systemic air embolism after lung trauma. Anesthesiology. 1999;90:564–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloonan, CC. Immediate Care of the Wounded: Circulation. Available at: http://www.operationalmedicine.org/TextbookFiles/Cloonan/Circulation.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Okumura, T, Takasu, N, Ishimatsu, S, et al. Report on 640 victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28:129–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grissom, TE. Critical-care air transport: patient flight physiology and organizational considerations. In: Hurd, WW, Jernigan, JG, eds. Aeromedical Evacuation: Management of Acute and Stabilized Patients. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2003:111–135.
Zimmerman, PD, Loeb, C. Dirty bombs: the threat revisited. Defense Horizons. 2004;38:1–11.Google Scholar
Giambarresi, L. Nuclear weapons: medical effects and operational considerations. Med Bull U S Army (Eur). 1986;43:7–10.Google Scholar
Randic, L, Simon, C, Mackway-Jones, K, Dunn, K. Planning for major burns incidents in the UK using an accelerated Delphi technique. Burns. 2002;28:405–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, C, Mackway-Jones, K, Randic, L, Dunn, K. Planning for major burns incidents by implementing an accelerated Delphi technique. Burns. 2002;28:413–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saffle, JR, Gibran, N, Jordan, M. Defining the ratio of outcomes to resources for triage of burn patients in mass casualties. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2005;26:478–482.Google Scholar
,Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. Medical Management of Radiological Casualties: Handbook. 2nd ed. Bethesda, MD: Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute; 2003:83–93.
Dons, RF, Cerveny, TJ. Triage and treatment of radiation-injured mass casualties. In: Zajtchuk, R, Jenkins, DP, Bellamy, RF, eds. Medical Consequences of Nuclear Warfare. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1989:37–53.
Koenig, KL, Goans, RE, Hatchett, RJ, et al. Medical treatment of radiological casualties: current concepts. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;45:643–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, DF, Goans, RE. Nuclear terrorism: triage and medical management of radiation and combined-Injury casualties. Surg Clin N Am. 2006;86:601–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benjaminov, O, Sklair-Levy, M, Rivkind, A, et al. Role of radiology in evaluation of terror attack victims. Am J Roentgen. 2006;187:609–616.Google Scholar
Ost, D, Corbridge, T. Independent lung ventilation. Clin Chest Med. 1996;17:591–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalebi, AY, Olumbe, AK. Forensic findings from the Nairobi U.S. Embassy terrorist bombing. East Afr Med J. 2006;83:380–388.Google Scholar
Leissner, KB, Ortega, R, Beattie, WS. Anesthesia implications of blast injury. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2006;20:872–880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avidan, V, Hersch, M, Armon, Y, et al. Blast lung injury: clinical manifestations, treatment, and outcome. Am J Surg. 2005;190:927–931.Google Scholar
Uretzky, G, Cotev, S. The use of continuous positive airway pressure in blast injury of the chest. Crit Care Med. 1980;8:486–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huh, J, Wall, MJ, Estera, AL, et al. Surgical management of traumatic pulmonary injury. Am J Surg. 2003;186:620–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, B, Ebert, J, Bokhari, F, et al. Practice Management Guideline for “Pulmonary Contusion – Flail Chest.” Chicago, IL: Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma; 2006.
Richardson, JD, Franz, JL, Grover, FL, Trinkle, JK. Pulmonary contusion and hemorrhage: crystalloid versus colloid replacement. J Surg Res. 1974;16:330–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bongard, FS, Lewis, FR. Crystalloid resuscitation of patients with pulmonary contusion. Am J Surg. 1984;148:145–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, JL. Fluid resuscitation in the brain-injured patient. Crit Care Med. 1995;23:4–6. (Editorial)Google Scholar
Harmon, JW, Sampson, JA, Graeber, GM, et al. Readily available serum chemical markers fail to aid in diagnosis of blast injury. J Trauma. 1988;28(1 Suppl):S153–159.Google Scholar
Adler, OB, Rosenberger, A. Blast injuries. Acta Radiol. 1988;29:1–5.Google Scholar
Wagner, RB, Jamieson, PM. Pulmonary contusion: evaluation and classification by computed tomography. Surg Clin N Am. 1989;69:31–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, P, Cohen, JD, Stein, M. Conventional terrorism and critical care. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(1 Suppl):S61–65.Google Scholar
Weiler-Ravell, D, Adatto, R, Borman, JB. Blast injury of the chest: a review of the problem and its treatment. Isr J Med Sci. 1975;11:268–274.Google Scholar
Sarkisian, AE, Khondkarian, RA, Amirbekian, NM, et al. Sonographic screening of mass casualties for abdominal and renal injuries following the 1988 Armenian earthquake. J Trauma. 1991;31:247–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sztajnkrycer, MD, Baez, AA, Luke, A. FAST ultrasound as an adjunct to triage using the START mass casualty triage system: a preliminary descriptive study. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2006;10:96–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, AG. The effects of blast on the ear. J Laryngol Otol 1980;94:107–110.Google Scholar
Xydakis, MS, Bebarta, VS, Harrison, CD, et al. Tympanic membrane perforation as a marker of concussive brain injury in Iraq. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:830–831. (Letter)Google Scholar
Leibovici, D, Gofrit, ON, Shapira, SC. Eardrum perforation in explosion survivors: is it a marker of pulmonary blast injury? Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34:168–172.Google Scholar
Mellor, SG. The pathogenesis of blast injury and its management. Br J Hosp Med. 1988;39:536–539.Google Scholar
Fry, , Schecter, WP, Hartshorne, MF. The surgeon and acts of civilian terrorism: radiation exposure and injury. J Am Coll Surg. 2005;202:146–154.Google Scholar
Chambers, JA Purdue, GF. Radiation injury and the surgeon. J Am Coll Surg. 2007;204:128–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorkine, P, Szold, O, Kluger, Y, et al. Permissive hypercapnia ventilation in patients with severe pulmonary blast injury. J Trauma. 1998;45:35–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christian, MD, Devereaux, AV, Dichter, JR, et al. Definitive care for the critically ill during a disaster: current capabilities and limitations. Chest. 2008;133(5 Suppl):8–17S.Google Scholar
Rubinson, L, Hick, JL, Hanfling, DG, et al. Definitive care for the critically ill during a disaster: a framework for optimizing critical care surge capacity. Chest. 2008;133(5 Suppl):18–31S.Google Scholar
Devereaux, AV, Dichter, JR, Christian, MD, et al. Definitive care for the critically ill during a disaster: a framework for allocation of scarce resources in mass critical care. Chest. 2008;133(5 Suppl):51–66S.Google Scholar
Newgard, CD, Hedges, JR, Adams, A, Mullins, RJ. Secondary triage: early identification of high-risk trauma patients presenting to non-tertiary hospitals. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2007;11:154–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel-Itzkovich, J. Israeli Minister orders hepatitis B vaccine for survivors of suicide bomb attacks. Br Med J. 2001;323:417.Google Scholar
Braverman, I, Wexler, D, Oren, M. A novel mode of infection with hepatitis B: penetrating bone fragments due to the explosion of a suicide bomber. Isr Med Assoc J. 2002;4:528–529.Google Scholar
Wong, JM, Marsh, D, Abu-Sitta, G, et al. Biological foreign body implanted in victims of the London July 7th suicide bombings. J Trauma. 2006;60:402–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, , Sullivent, EE, Grohskopf, , et al. Postexposure interventions to prevent infection with HBV, HCV, or HIV, and tetanus in people wounded during bombings and other mass casualty events – United States, 2008. Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2008;2:150–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, M. Tampa, FL: Presentation to the Special Operations Medical Association Annual Meeting, December 2006.
Hirshberg, B, Oppenheim-Eden, A, Pizov, R, et al. Recovery from blast lung injury: one-year follow-up. Chest. 1999;116:1683–1688.Google Scholar
Kronenberg, J, Ben-Shoshan, J, Modan, M, et al. Blast injury and cholesteatoma. Am J Otol. 1988;9:127–130.Google Scholar
Chang, EC, Backer, H, Bey, TA, Koenig, KL. Maxmizing medical and health outcomes after a catastrophic disaster: defining a new “Crisis Standard of Care.” Western J Emerg Med. 2008;9(3). Article 18. Available at: http://repositories.cdlib.org/uciem/westjem/vol9/iss3/art18.Google Scholar
Hirshberg, A, Holcomb, JB, Mattox, KL. Hospital trauma care in multiple-casualty incidents: a critical review. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;37:647–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, CH, Koenig, KL, Lewis, RJ. Implications of hospital evacuation after the Northridge, California, earthquake. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1349–1355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 2006;399–437.
Andress, K, Downey, E, Schultz, CH. Implications of hospital evacuation after Hurricane Rita. Acad Emerg Med. 2007;14(Suppl 1):S190. (Abstract)Google Scholar
Barbisch, DF, Koenig, KL. Understanding surge capacity: essential elements. Acad Emerg Med. 2006;13:1098–1102.Google Scholar
Tadmor, B, McManus, J, Koenig, KL. The art and science of surge: experience from Israel and the U.S. military. Acad Emerg Med. 2006;13:1130–1134.Google Scholar
,Department of Defense. A Mass Casualty Care Strategy for Biological Terrorism Incidents: Neighborhood Emergency Help Center. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Homeland Defense Office, United States Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command; May 2001.
,Department of Defense. A Mass Casualty Care Strategy for Biological Terrorism Incidents: Acute Care Center. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Homeland Defense Office, United States Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command; December 2001.
Malilay, J. Public health assessments in disaster settings: recommendations for a multidisciplinary approach. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2000;15:167–172.Google Scholar
Malilay, J, Flanders, WD, Brogan, D. A modified cluster-sampling method for post-disaster rapid assessment of needs. Bull World Health Organ. 1996;74:399–405.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rapid community needs assessment using modified cluster sampling methods. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; updated on 23 June 2006. Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/masscasualties/research/community. March 5, 2009.
,Public Health Information Network. Messaging services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; August 2007. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/phin/library/documents/pdf/111759_PHINmessaging.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2009.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. IT Functions and Specifications (also known as the Public Health Information Network Functions and Specifications) Version 1.2 – December 18, 2002. Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/planning/continuationguidance/docs/appendix-4.doc. Accessed March 5, 2009.
,National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD. Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide, 2nd ed. (2006). Available at: http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/manuals/smallerPFA_2ndEditionwithappendices.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Frykberg, ER, Tepas, JJ. Terrorist bombings: lessons learned from Belfast to Beirut. Ann Surg. 1988;208:569–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, JL, Tsai, M-C, Halpern, P, et al. Mass-casualty, terrorist bombings: epidemiological outcomes, resource utilization, and time course of emergency needs (part I). Prehosp Disaster Med. 2003;18:220–234.Google Scholar
Halpern, P, Tsai, M-C, Arnold, JL, et al. Mass-casualty, terrorist bombings: Implications for emergency department and hospital emergency response (part II). Prehosp Disaster Med. 2003;18:235–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellor, SG. Terrorist bombings: pattern of injury. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:236–46.
,United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives. U. S. Bomb Data Center. Available at: http://www.atf.gov/aexis2/index.htm. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Jenkins, JL, McCarthy, ML, Sauer, LM, et al. Mass-casualty triage: time for an evidence-based approach. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2008;23:3–8.Google Scholar
Lerner, EB, O'Connor, RE, Schwartz, R, et al. Blast-related injuries from terrorism: an international perspective. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2007;11:137–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConnan, I, ed. Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response. Geneva: The Sphere Project; 2000.
Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R. The weapons of conventional land warfare. In: Bellamy, RF, Zajtchuk, R, eds. Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast, and Burn Injuries. Falls Church, VA: Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army; 1991:1–52.
Ripple, GR, Phillips, Y. Military explosions. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:247–257.
Young, AJ, Jaeger, JJ, Phillips, YY, et al. The influence of clothing on human intrathoracic pressure during airblast. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1985;56:49–53.Google Scholar
Phillips, YY, Mundie, TG, Yelverton, JT, Richmond, DR. Cloth ballistic vest alters response to blast. J Trauma. 1988;28(1 Suppl):S149–152.Google Scholar
Cripps, NPJ, Cooper, GJ. The influence of personal blast protection on the distribution and severity of primary blast gut injury. J Trauma. 1996;40(3 Suppl):S206–211.Google Scholar
Cooper, GJ. Protection of the lung from blast overpressure by thoracic stress wave decouplers. J Trauma. 1996;40(3 Suppl):S105–110.Google Scholar
Cooper, GJ, Jönsson, A. Protection against blast injury. In: Cooper, GJ, Dudley, HAF, Gann, DS, et al., eds. Scientific Foundations of Trauma. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:258–283.
Hayda, R, Harris, RM, Bass, CD. Blast injury research: modeling injury effects of landmines, bullets, and bombs. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;422:97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gebhart, ME, Pence, R. START triage: does it work? Disaster Manage Response. 2007;5:68–73.Google Scholar
Asaeda, G. The day that the START triage system came to a STOP: observations from the World Trade Center disaster. Acad Emerg Med 2002;9:255–256. (Letter)Google Scholar
Cone, DC, MacMillan, DS. Mass-casualty triage systems: a hint of science [editorial]. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:739–741. (Editorial)Google Scholar
Sobacı, G, Akýn, T, Mutlu, FM, et al. Terror-related open-globe injuries: a 10-year review. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:937–939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, RM, Pracy, JP, Huggon, AM, Gleeson, MJ. Bomb blast injuries to the ear: the London Bridge incident series. J Accid Emerg Med. 1995;12:194–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thach, AB, Ward, TP, Hollifield, RD, et al. Eye injuries in a terrorist bombing: Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, June 25, 1996. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:844–847.Google Scholar
Persaud, R, Hajioff, D, Wareing, M, Chevretton, E. Otological trauma resulting from the Soho Nail Bomb in London, April 1999. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 2003;28:203–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, WC, Knox, FA, McGinnity, FG, Sharkey, JA. Serious eye and adnexal injuries from fireworks in Northern Ireland before and after lifting of the firework ban – an ophthalmology unit's experience. Int Ophthalmol. 2004;25:167–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mrena, R, Pääkkönen, R, Bäck, L, et al. Otologica consequences of blast exposure: a Finnish case study of a shopping mall bomb explosion. Acta Otolaryngol. 2004;124:946–952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, M, Burrows, H, Pinto, R, Somrack, E. Characterizing self-reported dizziness and otovestibular impairment among blast-injured traumatic amputees: a pilot study. Mil Med. 2007;172:731–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAllister, CN, Murray, TJ, Maxner, CE. The Halifax explosion of 1917: the oculist experience. Can J Ophthalmol 2008;43:27–32.Google Scholar
Ritenour, AE, Wickley, A, Ritenour, JS, et al. Tympanic membrane perforation and hearing loss from blast overpressure in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom wounded. J Trauma. 2008;64(2 Suppl):S174–178; discussion S178.Google Scholar
Thach, B, Johnson, AJ, Carroll, RB, et al. Severe eye injuries in the war in Iraq, 2003–2005. Ophthalmology. 2008;115:377–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×