Stem Cell Biology

Kay Elder; Brian Dale

doi:10.1017/9781108611633.008

Chapter 7 - Stem Cell Biology

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2019

Kay Elder and

Brian Dale

Show author details

Kay Elder: Affiliation:
Bourn Hall Clinic, Cambridge
Brian Dale: Affiliation:
Centre for Assisted Reproduction, Naples

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Every cell in an individual has a unique chromosome complement, with 20 000–25 000 genes coded into a DNA sequence of 3 billion base pairs, packed into 23 pairs of chromosomes: a total of 46 chromosomes in each diploid human cell. All of these cells have the same genetic information, copied during mitotic divisions by replicating the DNA during each cell cycle. The pattern of gene activity in each cell (gene expression/transcription) dictates its function and fate, enabling different cells to differentiate and carry out distinct functions.

Type: Chapter
Information: In-Vitro Fertilization , pp. 135 - 155

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108611633.008 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Primary Sources

Nature Reviews: www.nature.com/reviews/focus/stemcells/index.html Google Scholar

Secondary Sources

Andrews, PW (2002) From teratocarcinomas to embryonic stem cells. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 357: 405–417.Google Scholar

Chen, JC, Zhou, L, Pan, S-y (2014) A brief review of recent advances in stem cell biology. Neural Regeneration Research 9(7): 684–687.Google Scholar

Edwards, RG (2004) Stem cells today. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 8(3): 275–306.Google Scholar

Edwards, RG (2008) From embryonic stem cells to blastema and MRL mice. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 16(3): 425–461.Google Scholar

Fang, F, Li, Z, Zhao, Q, et al. (2018) Human induced pluripotent stem cells and male infertility: an overview of current progress and perspectives. Human Reproduction 33(2): 188–195.Google Scholar

Freshney, RI, Stacey, GN, Auerbach, JA (2007) Culture of Human Stem Cells. Wiley-Liss, Chichester, UK.Google Scholar

Gurdon, JB, Byrne, JA (2003) The first half-century of nuclear transplantation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 100(14): 8048–8052.Google Scholar

Hamazaki, T, El Rouby, N, Fredette, NC, et al. (2017) Concise review: induced pluripotent stem cell research in the era of precision medicine. Stem Cells 35(3): 545–550.Google Scholar

Sell, S (ed.) (2004) Stem Cells Handbook. Humana Press, New York.Google Scholar

Simon, C, Pellicer, A (2009) Stem Cells in Human Reproduction: Basic Science and Therapeutic Potential. Informa Healthcare, London.Google Scholar

Sullivan, S, Cowan, CA, Eggan, K (2007) Human Embryonic Stem Cells: The Practical Handbook. Wiley, Chichester.Google Scholar

Tilly, JL, Rueda, BR (2008) Minireview: Stem cell contribution to ovarian development, function, and disease. Endocrinology 149: 4307–5211.Google Scholar

Trounson, A, DeWitt, ND (2016) Pluripotent stem cells progressing to the clinic. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 17: 194–200.Google Scholar

Albertini, DF, Gleicher, N (2015) A detour in the quest for oogonial stem cells: methods matter. Nature Medicine 21: 1126–1127.Google Scholar

Andrews, PW, Banting, G, Damjanov, I, Arnaud, D, Avner, P (1984a) Three monoclonal antibodies defining distinct differentiation antigens associated with different high molecular weight polypeptides on the surface of human embryonal carcinoma cells. Hybridoma 3: 347–361.Google Scholar

Andrews, PW, Benvenisty, N, McKay, R, et al. (2005) The International Stem Cell Initiative: toward benchmarks for human embryonic stem cell research. Nature Biotechnology 23(7): 795–797.Google Scholar

Andrews, PW, Damjanov, I, Simon, D, et al. (1984b) Pluripotent embryonal carcinoma clones derived from the human teratocarcinoma cell line Tera-2. Laboratory Investigation 50: 147–162.Google Scholar

Andrews, PW, Goodfellow, PN, Shevinsky, LH, Bronson, DL, Knowles, BB (1982) Cell-surface antigens of a clonal human embryonal carcinoma cell line: morphological and antigenic differentiation in culture. International Journal of Cancer 29: 523–531.Google Scholar

Avilion, AA, Nicolis, SK, Pevny, LH, et al. (2003) Multipotent cell lineages in early mouse development depend on SOX2 function. Genes and Development 17: 126–140.Google Scholar

Bao, S, Tang, F, Li, X, et al. (2009) Epigenetic reversion of post-implantation epiblast to pluripotent embryonic stem cells. Nature 461: 1292–1295.Google Scholar

Beattie, GM, Lopez, AD, Bucay, N, et al. (2005) Activin A maintains pluripotency of human embryonic stem cells in the absence of feeder layers. Stem Cells 23: 489–495.Google Scholar

Bendall, SC, Stewart, MH, Menendez, P, et al. (2007) IGF and FGF cooperatively establish the regulatory stem cell niche of pluripotent human cells in vitro. Nature 448: 1015–1021.Google Scholar

Bongso, A, Fong, CY, Ng, SC, Ratnam, S (1994) Isolation and culture of inner cell mass cells from human blastocysts. Human Reproduction 9: 2110–2117.Google Scholar

Borstlap, J, Luong, MX, Rooke, HM, et al. (2010) International stem cell registries. In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology Animal 46(3–4): 242–246.Google Scholar

Boyer, LA, Lee, TI, Cole, MF, et al. (2005) Core transcriptional regulatory circuitry in human embryonic stem cells. Cell 122(6): 947–956.Google Scholar

Bradley, A, Evans, M, Kaufman, MH, Robertson, E (1984) Formation of germ-line chimaeras from embryo-derived teratocarcinoma cell lines. Nature 309: 255–256.Google Scholar

Brandenberger, R, Wei, H, Zhang, S, et al. (2004) Transcriptome characterization elucidates signaling networks that control human ES cell growth and differentiation. Nature Biotechnology 22: 707–716.Google Scholar

Brinster, RL, Zimmermann, JW (1994) Spermatogenesis following male germ-cell transplantation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 91: 11298–11302.Google Scholar

Brons, IG, Smithers, LE, Trotter, MW, et al. (2007) Derivation of pluripotent epiblast stem cells from mammalian embryos. Nature 448(7150): 191–195.Google Scholar

Byrne, JA (2008) Generation of isogenic pluripotent stem cells. Human Molecular Genetics 17(R1): R37–41.Google Scholar

Byrne, JA, Pedersen, DA, Clepper, LL, et al. (2007) Producing primate embryonic stem cells by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Nature 450(7169): 497–502.Google Scholar

Chambers, I, Silva, J, Colby, D, et al. (2007) Nanog safeguards pluripotency and mediates germline development. Nature 450: 1230–1234.Google Scholar

Cho, JH, Lee, C-S, Kwon, Y-W, et al. (2010) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult somatic cells by protein-based reprogramming without genetic manipulation. Blood 116(3): 386–395.Google Scholar

Cole, RJ, Edwards, RG, Paul, J (1965) Cytodifferentiation in cell colonies and cell strains derived from cleaving ova and blastocysts of the rabbit. Experimental Cell Research 37: 501–504.Google Scholar

Cole, RJ, Edwards, RG, Paul, J (1966) Cytodifferentiation and embryogenesis in cell colonies and tissue cultures derived from ova and blastocysts of the rabbit. Developmental Biology 13: 285–307.Google Scholar

Dahéron, L, Opitz, SL, Zaehres, H, et al. (2004) LIF/STAT3 signalling fails to maintain self-renewal of human embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 22(5): 770–778.Google Scholar

Davis, RP, Costa, M, Grandela, C, et al. (2008a) A protocol for removal of antibiotic resistance cassettes from human embryonic stem cells genetically modified by homologous recombination or transgenesis. Nature Protocols 3: 1550–1558.Google Scholar

Davis, RP, Ng, ES, Costa, M, et al. (2008b) Targeting a GFP reporter gene to the MIXL1 locus of human embryonic stem cells identifies human primitive streak-like cells and enables isolation of primitive hematopoietic precursors. Blood 111: 1876–1884.Google Scholar

Del Vento, F, Vermeulen, M, de Michele, F, et al. (2018) Tissue engineering to improve immature testicular tissue and cell transplantation outcomes: one step closer to fertility restoration for prepubertal boys exposed to gonadotoxic treatments. International Journal of Molecular Science 19: 286-310.Google Scholar

de Rooij, DG (2017) The nature and dynamics of spermatogonial stem cells. Development 144(17): 3022–3030.Google Scholar

Dietrich, JE, Hiragi, T (2007) Stochastic patterning in the mouse pre-implantation embryo. Development 134(23): 4219–4231.Google Scholar

Dunlop, CE, Bayne, RA, McLaughlin, M, Telfer, EE, Anderson, RA (2014) Isolation, purification and culture of oogonial stem cells from adult human and bovine ovarian cortex. Lancet 383: S48.Google Scholar

Evans, M, Kaufman, MH (1981) Establishment in culture of stem cells from mouse embryos Nature 292: 154–156.Google Scholar

Faddy, MJ, Gosden, RG (2007) Numbers of ovarian follicles and testing germline renewal in the postnatal ovary: facts and fallacies. Cell Cycle 6(15): 1951-1952.Google Scholar

Faddy, MJ, Gosden, RG, Gougeon, A, Richardson, SJ, Nelson, JF (1992) Accelerated disappearance of ovarian follicles in mid-life; implications for forecasting menopause. Human Reproduction 7: 1342–1346.Google Scholar

Gage, FH (2000) Mammalian neural stem cells. Science 287(5457): 1433–1438.Google Scholar

Gassei, K, Orwig, KE (2016) Experimental methods to preserve male fertility and treat male infertility. Fertility and Sterility 105(2): 256–266.Google Scholar

Fishel, S, Edwards, RG, Evans, CJ (1984) Human chorionic gonadotrophin secreted by preimplantation embryos. Science 223: 816–818.Google Scholar

Franklin, SB, Hunt, C, Cornwell, G, et al. (2008) hESCCO: development of good practice models for hES cell derivation. Regenerative Medicine 3(1): 105–116.Google Scholar

Gardner, Rl (1968) Mouse chimaeras obtained by the injection of cells into the blastocyst. Nature 220: 596–597.Google Scholar

Gosden, RG (2013) Programmes and prospects for ovotechnology. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 27: 702–709.Google Scholar

Grieve, KM, McLaughlin, M, Dunlop, CE, Telfer, EE, Anderson, RA (2015) The controversial existence and functional potential of oogonial stem cells. Maturitas 82: 278–281.Google Scholar

Guo, G, Yang, J, Nichols, J, et al. (2009) Klf4 reverts developmentally programmed restriction of ground state pluripotency. Development 136(7): 1063–1069.Google Scholar

Guo, J, Grow, EJ, Yi, C, et al. (2017) Transcription, signaling and metabolic transitions during human spermatogonial stem cell differentiation. Cell Stem Cell 21(4): 533–546. DOI:10.1016/j.stem.2017.09.003.Google Scholar

Gurdon, JB (1962) The developmental capacity of nuclei taken from intestinal epithelial cells of feeding tadpoles. Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology 10: 622–640.Google Scholar

Gurdon, JB (1968) Transplanted nuclei and cell differentiation. Scientific American 219(6): 24–35.Google Scholar

Gurdon, JB, Colman, A (1999) The future of cloning. Nature 402: 743–746.Google Scholar

Handel, MA, Eppig, JJ, Schimenti, JC (2014) Applying “gold standards” to in vitro-derived germ cells. Cell 157: 1257–1261.Google Scholar

Hannah, C, Hennebold, J (2014) Ovarian germline stem cells: an unlimited source of oocytes? Fertility and Sterility 101(1): 20–30.Google Scholar

Hannan, NR, Jamshidi, P, Pera, MF, Wolvetang, EJ (2009) BMP-11 and myostatin support undifferentiated growth of human embryonic stem cells in feeder-free cultures. Cloning Stem Cells 11(3): 427–435.Google Scholar

Hatzistavrou, T, Micallef, SJ, Ng, ES, et al. (2009) ErythRED, a hESC line enabling identification of erythroid cells. Nature Methods 6(9): 659–662.Google Scholar

Hayashi, K, Ogushi, S, Kurimoto, K, Shimamoto, S, Ohta, H, Saitou, M (2012) Offspring from oocytes derived from in vitro primordial germ cell-like cells in mice. Science 338: 971–975.Google Scholar

Heng, BC, Richards, M, Ge, Z, Shu, Y (2010) Induced adult stem (iAS) cells and induced transit amplifying progenitor (iTAP) cells – a possible alternative to induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells? Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 4(2):159–162.Google Scholar

Hogan, B, Fellows, M, Avner, P, Jacob, F (1977) Isolation of a human teratoma cell line which expresses F9 antigen. Nature 270: 515–518.Google Scholar

Hough, SR, Laslett, AL, Grimmond, SB, Kolle, G, Pera, MF (2009) A continuum of cell states spans pluripotency and lineage commitment in human embryonic stem cells. PLoS One 4(11): e7708.Google Scholar

Humphrey, RK, Beattie, GM, Lopez, AD, et al. (2004) Maintenance of pluripotency in human embryonic stem cells is STAT3 independent. Stem Cells 22(4): 522–530.Google Scholar

Hwang, W-S, Roh, SI, Lee, BC, et al. (2005) Patient-specific embryonic stem cells derived from human SCNT blastocysts. Science 308: 1777–1783.Google Scholar

Hwang, W-S, Ryu, YJ, Park, JH, et al. (2004) Evidence of a pluripotent human embryonic stem cell line derived from a cloned blastocyst. Science 303: 1669–1674.Google Scholar

Illmensee, K (2002) Biotechnology in reproductive medicine. Differentiation 69(4–5): 167–173.Google Scholar

Johnson, J, Bagley, J, Skaznik-Wikiel, M, et al. (2005a) Oocyte generation in adult mammalian ovaries by putative germ cells in bone marrow and peripheral blood. Cell 122: 303–315.Google Scholar

Johnson, J, Canning, J, Kaneko, T, Pru, JK, Tilly, JL (2004) Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary. Nature 428: 145–150.Google Scholar

Johnson, J, Skaznik-Wikiel, M, Lee, HJ, Niikura, Y, Tilly, JC, Tilly, JL (2005b) Setting the record straight on data supporting postnatal oogenesis in female mammals. Cell Cycle 4: 1469–1575.Google Scholar

Kahn, BW, Ephrussi, B (1970) Developmental potentialities of clonal in vitro cultures of mouse testicular teratoma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 44: 1015–1029.Google Scholar

Kaji, K, Norrby, K, Paca, A, et al. (2009) Virus-free induction of pluripotency and subsequent excision of reprogramming factors. Nature 458(7239): 771–775.Google Scholar

Kim, J, Lengner, CJ, Kirak, O, et al. (2011) Reprogramming of postnatal neurons into induced pluripotent stem cells by defined factors. Stem Cells 29(6): 992–1000.Google Scholar

Klimanskaya, I, Chung, Y, Becker, S, Lu, SJ, Lanza, R (2007) Derivation of human embryonic stem cells from single blastomeres. Nature Protocols 2(8): 1964–1972.Google Scholar

Kolle, G, Ho, SHM, Zhou, Q, et al. (2009) Identification of human embryonic stem cell surface markers by combined membrane-polysome translation state array analysis and immunotranscriptional profiling. Stem Cells 27(10): 2446–2456.Google Scholar

Kropp, C, Masai, D, Zweigerdt, R (2016) Progress and challenges in large-scale expansion of human pluripotent stem cells. Process Biochemistry http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2016.09.032 Google Scholar

Laslett, AL, Grimmond, S, Gardiner, B, et al. (2007b) Transcriptional analysis of early lineage commitment in human embryonic stem cells. BMC Developmental Biology 7: 12.Google Scholar

Laslett, AL, Lin, A, Pera, MF (2007c) Characterization and differentiation of human embryonic stem cells. In: Masters, JR, Palsson, BO, Thomson, JA, et al. (eds.) Embryonic Stem Cells. Springer, the Netherlands, pp. 27–40.Google Scholar

Lowry, WE, Richter, L, Yachecko, R, et al. (2008) Generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells from dermal fibroblasts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105(8): 2883–2888.Google Scholar

Mai, Q, Yu, Y, Li, T, et al. (2007) Derivation of human embryonic stem cell lines from parthenogenetic blastocysts. Cell Research 17(12): 1008–1019.Google Scholar

Martin, GR (1981) Isolation of a pluripotent cell line from early mouse embryos cultured in medium conditioned by teratocarcinoma stem cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 78: 7634–7638.Google Scholar

Matsui, Y, Zsebo, K, Hogan, BL (1992) Derivation of pluripotential embryonic stem cells from murine primordial germ cells in culture. Cell 70: 841–847.Google Scholar

Mullor, JL, Sánchez, P, Altaba, AR (2003) Pathways and consequences: Hedgehog signaling in human disease. Trends in Cell Biology 12(12): 562–569.Google Scholar

Mummery, C, Ward, D, van den Brink, CE, et al. (2002) Cardiomyocyte differentiation of mouse and human embryonic stem cells. Journal of Anatomy 200: 233–242.Google Scholar

Negoro, T, Okura, H, Matsuyama, A (2017) Induced pluripotent stem cells: global research trends. BioResearch Open Access 6.1. DOI: 10.1089/biores.2017.0013Google Scholar

Ng, ES, Davis, R, Stanley, EG,Elefanty, AG (2008) A protocol describing the use of a recombinant protein-based, animal product free medium (APEL) for human embryonic stem cell differentiation as spin embryoid bodies. Nature Protocols 3: 768–776.Google Scholar

Nichols, J, Smith, A (2009) Naive and primed pluripotent states. Cell Stem Cell 4: 487–492.Google Scholar

Nichols, J, Zevnik, B, Anastassiadis, K, et al. (1998) Formation of pluripotent stem cells in the mammalian embryo depends on the POU transcription factor Oct-4. Cell 95: 379–391.Google Scholar

Niwa, H, Miyazaki, J, Smith, AG (2000) Quantitative expression of Oct-3/4 defines differentiation, dedifferentiation or self-renewal of ES cells. Nature Genetics 24: 372–376.Google Scholar

O’Brien, C, Lambshead, J, Chy, H, Zhou, Q, Wang, Y-C (2012) Analysis and purification techniques for human pluripotent stem cells. In: Peterson, S, Loring, JG (eds.) Human Stem Cell Manual: A Laboratory Guide, 2nd edn. Academic Press.Google Scholar

Pedersen, R (2005) Developments in human embryonic stem cells. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 10(Suppl. 1): 60–62.Google Scholar

Peerani, R, Rao, BM, Bauwens, C, et al. (2007) Niche-mediated control of human embryonic stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. EMBO Journal 26(22): 4744–4755.Google Scholar

Pera, MF, Cooper, S, Mills, J, Parrington, JM (1989) Isolation and characterization of a multipotent clone of human embryonal carcinoma-cells. Differentiation 42: 10–23.Google Scholar

Picton, HM, Wyns, C, Anderson, RA, et al. (2015) A European perspective on testicular tissue cryopreservation for fertility preservation in prepubertal and adolescent boys. Human Reproduction 30(11): 2643–2675.Google Scholar

Pierce, GB (1974) Neoplasms, differentiations and mutations. American Journal of Pathology 77(1): 103–118.Google Scholar

Rao, BM, Zandstra, PW (2005) Culture development for human embryonic stem cell propagation: molecular aspects and challenges. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 16(5): 568–576.Google Scholar

Resnick, JL, Bixler, LS, Cheng, L, Donovan, PJ (1992) Long- term proliferation of mouse primordial germ cells in culture. Nature 359: 550–551.Google Scholar

Reubinoff, BE, Pera, MF, Fong, C-Y, Trounson, A, Bongso, A (2000) Embryonic stem cell lines from human blastocysts: somatic differentiation in vitro. Nature Biotechnology 18: 299–404.Google Scholar

Revazova, ES, Turovets, NA, Kochetkova, OD, et al. (2007) Patient-specific stem cell lines derived from human parthenogenetic blastocysts. Cloning Stem Cells 9(3): 432–449.Google Scholar

Roode, M, Blair, K, Snell, P, et al. (2012) Human hypoblast formation is not dependent on FGF signaling. Developmental Biology 361: 358–363.Google Scholar

Seifinejad, A, Tabebordbar, M, Baharvand, H, Boyer, LA, Hosseini Salekdeh, G (2010) Progress and promise towards safe induced pluripotent stem cells for therapy. Stem Cell Review 6(2): 297–306.Google Scholar

Sermon, CKD, Simon, C, Braude, P, et al. (2009) Creation of a registry for human embryonic stem cells carrying an inherited defect: joint collaboration between ESHRE and hESCreg. Human Reproduction 24(7): 1556–1560.Google Scholar

Silva, J, Nichols, J, Theunissen, TW, et al. (2009) Nanog is the gateway to the pluripotent ground state. Cell 138: 722–737.Google Scholar

Smith, AG, Heath, JK, Donaldson, DD, et al. (1988) Inhibition of pluripotential embryonic stem cell differentiation by purified polypeptides. Nature 336 (6200): 688–690.Google Scholar

Stevens, LC (1967) Origin of testicular teratomas from primordial germ cells in mice. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 38(4): 549–552.Google Scholar

Stevens, LC (1970) The development of transplantable teratocarcinomas from intratesticular grafts of pre- and postimplantation mouse embryos. Developmental Biology 21: 364–382.Google Scholar

Stojkovic, M, Lako, M, Stojkovic, P, et al. (2004) Derivation of human embryonic stem cells from day-8 blastocysts recovered after three-step in vitro culture. Stem Cells 22: 790–797.Google Scholar

Strelchenko, N, Verlinsky, O, Kukharenko, V, Verlinsky, Y (2004) Morula-derived human embryonic stem cells. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 9: 623–629.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K, Okita, K, Nakagawa, M, Yamanaka, S (2007a) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from fibroblast cultures. Nature Protocols 2(12): 3081–3089.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K, Tanabe, K, Ohnuki, M, et al. (2007b) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131(5): 861–872.Google Scholar

Takahashi, K, Yamanaka, S (2006) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126(4): 663–676.Google Scholar

Takashima, S, Shinohara, T (2018) Culture and transplantation of spermatogonial stem cells. Stem Cell Research 29: 46–55.Google Scholar

Telfer, EE, Albertini, DF (2012) The quest for human ovarian stem cells. Nature Medicine 18(3): 353–354.Google Scholar

Telfer, EE, Gosden, RG, Byskov, AG, et al. (2005) On regenerating the ovary and generating controversy. Cell 122: 821–982.Google Scholar

Tesar, PJ, Chenoweth, JG, Brook, FA, et al. (2007) New cell lines from mouse epiblast share defining features with human embryonic stem cells. Nature 448: 196–199.Google Scholar

Thomson, JA, Itskovitz-Eldor, J, Shapiro, SS, et al. (1998) Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts. Science 282: 1145–1147.Google Scholar

Thomson, JA, Kalishman, J, Golos, TG, et al. (1995) Isolation of a primate embryonic stem cell line. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92: 7844–7848.Google Scholar

Thomson, JA, Kalishman, J, Golos, TG, et al. (1996) Pluripotent cell lines derived from common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) blastocysts. Biology of Reproduction 55: 688–690.Google Scholar

Thompson, S, Stern, PL, Webb, M, et al. (1984) Cloned human teratoma cells differentiate into neuron-like cells and other cell types in retinoic acid. Journal of Cell Science 72: 37–64.Google Scholar

Trounson, A (2002) Human embryonic stem cells: mother of all cell and tissue types. Proceedings of Serono Symposia International Conference: “Robert G Edwards at 75”. Reproductive BioMedicine Online 4(Suppl. 1): 58–63.Google Scholar

Trounson, A, McDonald, C (2015) Stem cell therapies in clinical trials: progress and challenges. Cell Stem Cell 17: 11–22.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Vallier, L, Alexander, M, Pedersen, RA (2005) Activin/Nodal and FGF pathways cooperate to maintain pluripotency of human embryonic stem cells. Journal of Cell Science 118: 4495–4509.Google Scholar

White, YA, Woods, DC, Takai, Y, Ishihara, O, Seki, H, Tilly, JL (2012) Oocyte formation by mitotically active germ cells purified from ovaries of reproductive age women. Nature Medicine 18: 413–421.Google Scholar

Williams, RL, Hilton, DJ, Pease, S, et al. (1988) Myeloid leukaemia inhibitory factor maintains the developmental potential of embryonic stem cells. Nature 336(6200): 684–687.Google Scholar

Wilmut, I, Schnieke, AE, McWhir, J, Kind, AJ, Campbell, KH (1997) Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature 385: 810–813.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wolf, DP, Mitalipov, S, Norgren, RB Jr. (2001) Nuclear transfer technology in mammalian cloning. Archives of Medical Research 32(6): 609–613.Google Scholar

Woltjen, K, Michael, IP, Mohseni, P, et al. (2009) piggyBac transposition reprograms fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 458(7239): 766–770.Google Scholar

Woods, DC, Tilly, JL (2013) Isolation, characterization and propagation of mitotically active germ cells from adult mouse and human ovaries. Nature Protocols 8: 966–988.Google Scholar

Ying, QL, Nichols, J, Chambers, I, Smith, A (2003) BMP induction of Id proteins suppresses differentiation and sustains embryonic stem cell self-renewal in collaboration with STAT3. Cell 115(3): 281–292.Google Scholar

Yu, J, Vodyanik, MA, Smuga-Otto, K, et al. (2007) Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 318(5858): 1917–1920.Google Scholar

Zhou, H, Ding, S (2010) Evolution of induced pluripotent stem cell technology. Current Opinions in Hematology 17(4): 276–280.Google Scholar

Zhou, H, Wu, S, Duan, L, Ding, S (2009) Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells using recombinant proteins. Cell Stem Cell 4(5): 381–384.Google Scholar

Zou, K, Yuan, Z, Yang, Z, et al. (2009) Production of offspring from a germline stem cell line from neonatal ovaries. Nature Cell Biology 11: 631–636.Google Scholar

Zuckerman, S (1951) The number of oocytes in the mature ovary. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 6: 63–108.Google Scholar