Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T21:38:54.407Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - The Neural Mechanisms Underlying Social Norms

Norm Detection, Punishment, and Compliance

from Section 3 - How Social Coordination and Cooperation are Achieved

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

By
Yan Mu  and
Michele J. Gelfand
Edited by
Laurence J. Kirmayer ,
Carol M. Worthman ,
Shinobu Kitayama ,
Robert Lemelson  and
Constance A. Cummings
Laurence J. Kirmayer
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montréal
Carol M. Worthman
Affiliation:
Emory University, Atlanta
Shinobu Kitayama
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Robert Lemelson
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Constance A. Cummings
Affiliation:
The Foundation for Psychocultural Research
Get access

Summary

Social norms are informal rules for behavior, and are fundamental to all societies. Recently, cultural neuroscience investigating the relation between culture, the brain, and behavior has begun to provide unique insights into the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying social norms and their cultural variations. This chapter offers an integrative review of the literature addressing a number of key questions: Are social norms unique to humans? How do people detect norm violations, punish violators, and comply with norms, and what are the brain functions that support such processes? We also explore what might be culturally universal and culturally specific for each of these processes, and how culture and genes might interact to impact norm-related psychological and neural processes. We conclude with a discussion of exciting frontiers that await investigation in the cultural neuroscience of social norms.

Keywords

social normsculturebrainnorm detectionnorm enforcementnorm compliance
Type
Chapter
Information
Culture, Mind, and Brain
Emerging Concepts, Models, and Applications
 , pp. 300 - 324
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aplin, L. M., Farine, D. R., Morand-Ferron, J., Cockburn, A., Thornton, A., & Sheldon, B. C. (2015). Experimentally induced innovations lead to persistent culture via conformity in wild birds. Nature, 518(7540), 538–41. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13998CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093718Google Scholar
Balzer, M. M. (1980). The route to eternity: Cultural persistence and change in Siberian Khanty burial ritual. Arctic Anthropology, 17(1), 77–89. www.jstor.org/stable/40315968Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-LCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2000). Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123(11), 2189–202. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/123.11.2189Google Scholar
Beevers, C. G., Ellis, A. J., Wells, T. T., & McGeary, J. E. (2010). Serotonin transporter gene promoter region polymorphism and selective processing of emotional images. Biological Psychology, 83(3), 260–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.08.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benningfield, M. M., Blackford, J. U., Ellsworth, M. E., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., Martin, P. R., Cowan, R. L., & Zald, D. H. (2014). Caudate responses to reward anticipation associated with delay discounting behavior in healthy youth. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 7, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.10.009Google Scholar
Berthoz, S., Armony, J. L., Blair, R. J. R., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). An fMRI study of intentional and unintentional (embarrassing) violations of social norms. Brain, 125(8), 1696–708. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awf190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). Dissociable neural responses to facial expressions of sadness and anger. Brain, 122(5), 883–93. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/122.5.883Google Scholar
Boesch, C., Marchesi, P., Marchesi, N., Fruth, B., & Joulian, F. (1994). Is nut cracking in wild chimpanzees a cultural behaviour? Journal of Human Evolution, 26(4), 325–38. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1994.1020Google Scholar
Buckholtz, J. W., Asplund, C. L., Dux, P. E., Zald, D. H., Gore, J. C., Jones, O. D., & Marois, R. (2008). The neural correlates of third-party punishment. Neuron, 60(5), 930–40. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.10.016Google Scholar
Buckholtz, J. W., & Marois, R. (2012). The roots of modern justice: Cognitive and neural foundations of social norms and their enforcement. Nature Neuroscience, 15(5), 655–61. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3087CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, A. J., Lawrence, A. D., & Young, A. W. (2001). Neuropsychology of fear and loathing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(5), 352–63. https://doi.org/10.1038/35072584CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ceballos, N. A., Houston, R. J., Smith, N. D., Bauer, L. O., & Taylor, R. E. (2005). N400 as an index of semantic expectancies: Differential effects of alcohol and cocaine dependence. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 29(6), 936–43. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.04.036Google Scholar
Chiao, J. Y. (2009). Cultural neuroscience: A once and future discipline. Progress in Brain Research, 178, 287–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(09)17821-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiao, J. Y., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2010). Culture-gene coevolution of individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1681), 529–37. http://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1650Google Scholar
Chudek, M., & Henrich, J. (2011). Culture-gene coevolution, norm-psychology and the emergence of human prosociality. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(5), 218–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.03.003Google Scholar
De Dreu, C. K. W., Greer, L. L., Van Kleef, G. A., Shalvi, S., & Handgraaf, M. J. J. (2011). Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(4), 1262–6. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015316108Google Scholar
de Quervain, D. J.-F., Fischbacher, U., Treyer, V., Schellhammer, M., Schnyder, U., Buck, A., & Fehr, E. (2004). The neural basis of altruistic punishment. Science, 305(5688), 1254–8. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100735Google Scholar
Dellinger, K. (2002). Wearing gender and sexuality “on your sleeve”: Dress norms and the importance of occupational and organizational culture at work. Gender Issues, 20(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-002-0005-5Google Scholar
Dixon, R. B. (1971). Explaining cross-cultural variations in age at marriage and proportions never marrying. Population Studies, 25(2), 215–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.1971.10405799Google Scholar
Dumas, G., Lachat, F., Martinerie, J., Nadel, J., & George, N. (2011). From social behaviour to brain synchronization: Review and perspectives in hyperscanning. IRBM, 32(1), 48–53. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.irbm.2011.01.002Google Scholar
Dumas, G., Nadel, J., Soussignan, R., Martinerie, J., & Garnero, L. (2010). Inter-brain synchronization during social interaction. PLoS ONE, 5(8), e12166. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012166Google Scholar
Ebstein, R. P., Novick, O., Umansky, R., Priel, B., Osher, Y., Blaine, D., Bennett, E. R., Nemanov, L., Katz, M., & Belmaker, R. H. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12(1), 78–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng0196-78Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Zhou, Q. (2000). Regulation from a developmental perspective. Psychological Inquiry, 11(3), 166–71. www.jstor.org/stable/1449796Google Scholar
Elster, J. (1989). The cement of society: A study of social order. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2004a). Social norms and human cooperation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 185–90. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.02.007Google Scholar
Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2004b). Third-party punishment and social norms. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25(2), 63–87. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(04)00005-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E., & Rockenbach, B. (2004). Human altruism: Economic, neural, and evolutionary perspectives. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(6), 784–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.10.007Google Scholar
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2006). The neural basis of mentalizing. Neuron, 50(4), 531–4. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.05.001Google Scholar
Galef, B. G., & Whiskin, E. E. (2008). “Conformity” in Norway rats? Animal Behaviour, 75(6), 2035–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.11.012Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J. (2018). Rule makers, rule breakers: How tight and loose cultures wire our world. Scribner.Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Harrington, J. R., & Jackson, J. C. (2017). The strength of social norms across human groups. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 800–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708631Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., Duan, L., Almaliach, A., Ang, S., Arnadottir, J., Aycan, Z., Boehnke, K., Boski, P., Cabecinhas, R., Chan, D., Chhokar, J., D’Amato, A., Ferrer, M., Fischlmayr, I. C., … Yamaguchi, S. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332(6033), 1100–4. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1197754CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goto, S. G., Ando, Y., Huang, C., Yee, A., & Lewis, R. S. (2009). Cultural differences in the visual processing of meaning: Detecting incongruities between background and foreground objects using the N400. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5(2–3), 242–53. http://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp038Google Scholar
Hagoort, P., Hald, L., Bastiaansen, M., & Petersson, K. M. (2004). Integration of word meaning and world knowledge in language comprehension. Science, 304(5669), 438–41. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1095455Google Scholar
Han, X., Gelfand, M. J., Wu, B., Zhang, T., Li, W., Gao, T., Pang, C., Wu, T., Zhou, Y., Zhou, S., & Wu, X. (2020). A neurobiological association of revenge propensity during intergroup conflict. ELife, 9, e52014. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.52014Google Scholar
Han, S., Northoff, G., Vogeley, K., Wexler, B. E., Kitayama, S., & Varnum, M. E. W. (2013). A cultural neuroscience approach to the biosocial nature of the human brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 335–59. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-071112-054629Google Scholar
Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., Goldman, D., Egan, M. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science, 297(5580), 400–3. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1071829Google Scholar
Harrington, J. R., & Gelfand, M. J. (2014). Tightness-looseness across the 50 United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(22), 7990–5. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317937111Google Scholar
Harrington, J. R., & Gelfand, M. J. (2020). A world unto themselves: Tightness-looseness and social class [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Psychology, University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Haun, D. B. M., Rekers, Y., & Tomasello, M. (2014). Children conform to the behavior of peers; other great apes stick with what they know. Psychological Science, 25(12), 2160–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614553235Google Scholar
Heeger, D. J., & Ress, D. (2002). What does fMRI tell us about neuronal activity? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(2), 142–51. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn730CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgs, S. (2015). Social norms and their influence on eating behaviours. Appetite, 86, 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.021Google Scholar
Hoehl, S., Keupp, S., Schleihauf, H., McGuigan, N., Buttelmann, D., & Whiten, A. (2019). ‘Over-imitation’: A review and appraisal of a decade of research. Developmental Review, 51, 90–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.12.002Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organizations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 10(4), 15–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00208825.1980.11656300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kacen, J. J., & Lee, J. A. (2002). The influence of culture on consumer impulsive buying behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(2), 163–76. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP1202_08CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanat, M., Heinrichs, M., & Domes, G. (2014). Oxytocin and the social brain: Neural mechanisms and perspectives in human research. Brain Research, 1580, 160–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.11.003Google Scholar
Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., & Mesquita, B. (2004). Collective and personal processes in regulating emotions: Emotion and self in Japan and the United States. In Philippot, P. & Friedman, R. S. (Eds.), The regulation of emotion (pp. 251–73). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Kitayama, S., King, A., Hsu, M., Liberzon, I., & Yoon, C. (2016). Dopamine-system genes and cultural acquisition: The norm sensitivity hypothesis. Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 167–74. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2015.11.006Google Scholar
Kitayama, S., King, A., Yoon, C., Tompson, S., Huff, S., & Liberzon, I. (2014). The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) moderates cultural difference in independent versus interdependent social orientation. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1169–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614528338CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitayama, S., & Uskul, A. K. (2011). Culture, mind, and the brain: Current evidence and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 419–49. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145357Google Scholar
Klimesch, W., Sauseng, P., & Hanslmayr, S. (2007). EEG alpha oscillations: The inhibition-timing hypothesis. Brain Research Reviews, 53(1), 63–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.06.003Google Scholar
Koenigs, M., & Tranel, D. (2007). Irrational economic decision-making after ventromedial prefrontal damage: Evidence from the Ultimatum Game. Journal of Neuroscience, 27(4), 951–6. http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4606-06.2007Google Scholar
Krawczyk, D. C. (2002). Contributions of the prefrontal cortex to the neural basis of human decision-making. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26(6), 631–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00021-0Google Scholar
Krueger, F., Parasuraman, R., Iyengar, V., Thornburg, M., Weel, J., Lin, M., Clarke, E., McCabe, K., & Lipsky, R. H. (2012). Oxytocin receptor genetic variation promotes human trust behavior. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00004Google Scholar
Kuhnen, C. M., & Chiao, J. Y. (2009). Genetic determinants of financial risk taking. PLoS ONE, 4(2), e4362. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004362Google Scholar
Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D. (2011). Thirty years and counting: Finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 621–47. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131123Google Scholar
Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, J., & Myles, S. (2010). How culture shaped the human genome: Bringing genetics and the human sciences together. Nature Reviews Genetics, 11(2), 137–48. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2734Google Scholar
Lesch, K.-P., Bengel, D., Heils, A., Sabol, S. Z., Greenberg, B. D., Petri, S., Benjamin, J., Müller, C. R., Hamer, D. H., & Murphy, D. L. (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science, 274(5292), 1527–31. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5292.1527Google Scholar
Luncz, L. V, Mundry, R., & Boesch, C. (2012). Evidence for cultural differences between neighboring chimpanzee communities. Current Biology, 22(10), 922–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.031Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathur, V. A., Harada, T., Lipke, T., & Chiao, J. Y. (2010). Neural basis of extraordinary empathy and altruistic motivation. NeuroImage, 51(4), 1468–75. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.025Google Scholar
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montague, P. R., Berns, G. S., Cohen, J. D., McClure, S. M., Pagnoni, G., Dhamala, M., Wiest, M. C., Karpov, I., King, R. D., Apple, N., & Fisher, R. E. (2002). Hyperscanning: Simultaneous fMRI during linked social interactions. NeuroImage, 16(4), 1159–64. http://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1150Google Scholar
Montague, P. R., & Lohrenz, T. (2007). To detect and correct: Norm violations and their enforcement. Neuron, 56, 14–18. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.020Google Scholar
Mrazek, A. J., Chiao, J. Y., Blizinsky, K. D., Lun, J., & Gelfand, M. J. (2013). The role of culture-gene coevolution in morality judgment: Examining the interplay between tightness-looseness and allelic variation of the serotonin transporter gene. Culture and Brain, 1(2–4), 100–17. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40167-013-0009-xGoogle Scholar
Mu, Y., Guo, C., & Han, S. (2016). Oxytocin enhances inter-brain synchrony during social coordination in male adults. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(2), 1882–93. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mu, Y., Han, S., & Gelfand, M. J. (2017). The role of gamma interbrain synchrony in social coordination when humans face territorial threats. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(10), 1614–23. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnsx093Google Scholar
Mu, Y., Han, S., & Gelfand, M. J. (2020). An fMRI study on social norm violation detection and punishment [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Psychology, University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Mu, Y., Kitayama, S., Han, S., & Gelfand, M. J. (2015). How culture gets embrained: Cultural differences in event-related potentials of social norm violations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(50), 15348–53. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1509839112Google Scholar
Mu, Y., Kitayama, S., Han, S., & Gelfand, M. J. (2020). Do we rest differently?: Cultural variation in neural markers of self-control [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Psychology, University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Munafò, M. R., Brown, S. M., & Hariri, A. R. (2008). Serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype and amygdala activation: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 63(9), 852–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.08.016Google Scholar
Na, J., & Kitayama, S. (2011). Spontaneous trait inference is culture-specific: Behavioral and neural evidence. Psychological Science, 22(8), 1025–32. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611414727Google Scholar
Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (2000). Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. Journal of Physiology, 527(3), 633–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osinsky, R., Reuter, M., Küpper, Y., Schmitz, A., Kozyra, E., Alexander, N., & Hennig, J. (2008). Variation in the serotonin transporter gene modulates selective attention to threat. Emotion, 8(4), 584–8. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012826CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pelto, P. J. (1968). The differences between “tight” and “loose” societies. Society, 5(5), 37–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03180447Google Scholar
Ramnani, N., & Owen, A. M. (2004). Anterior prefrontal cortex: Insights into function from anatomy and neuroimaging. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(3), 184–94. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1343Google Scholar
Reher, D. S. (1998). Family ties in Western Europe: Persistent contrasts. Population and Development Review, 24(2), 203–34. https://doi.org/10.2307/2807972Google Scholar
Röder, B., Rösler, F., & Neville, H. J. (2000). Event-related potentials during auditory language processing in congenitally blind and sighted people. Neuropsychologia, 38(11), 1482–502. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(00)00057-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roos, P., Gelfand, M. J., Nau, D., & Lun, J. (2015). Societal threat and cultural variation in the strength of social norms: An evolutionary basis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.01.003Google Scholar
Ruff, C. C., Ugazio, G., & Fehr, E. (2013). Changing social norm compliance with noninvasive brain stimulation. Science, 342(6157), 482–4. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241399Google Scholar
Salvador, C. E., Mu, Y., Gelfand, M. J., & Kitayama, S. (2020). When norm violations are spontaneously detected: An electrocortical investigation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 15(3), 319–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaa035Google Scholar
Sanfey, A. G., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A, Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game. Science, 300(5626), 1755–8. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1082976Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Call, J., & Morgan, D. (2009). Design complexity in termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Biology Letters, 5(3), 293–6. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0786Google Scholar
Sasaki, J. Y., Kim, H. S., Mojaverian, T., Kelley, L. D. S., Park, I. Y., & Janušonis, S. (2013). Religion priming differentially increases prosocial behavior among variants of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(2), 209–15. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr089Google Scholar
Sauseng, P., Klimesch, W., Doppelmayr, M., Pecherstorfer, T., Freunberger, R., & Hanslmayr, S. (2005). EEG alpha synchronization and functional coupling during top-down processing in a working memory task. Human Brain Mapping, 26(2), 148–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20150Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60281-6Google Scholar
Sen, S., Burmeister, M., & Ghosh, D. (2004). Meta-analysis of the association between a serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5‐HTTLPR) and anxiety-related personality traits. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 127B(1), 85–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.20158Google Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., & Abu-Akel, A. (2016). The social salience hypothesis of oxytocin. Biological Psychiatry, 79(3), 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.020Google Scholar
Sheese, B. E., Voelker, P. M., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2007). Parenting quality interacts with genetic variation in dopamine receptor D4 to influence temperament in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 19(4), 1039–46. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407000521Google Scholar
Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 580–91. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205014Google Scholar
Singer, T., Critchley, H. D., & Preuschoff, K. (2009). A common role of insula in feelings, empathy and uncertainty. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(8), 334–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.05.001Google Scholar
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Herrnberger, B., Grön, G., & Fehr, E. (2007). The neural signature of social norm compliance. Neuron, 56(1), 185–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.011Google Scholar
Spring, J. H. (2008). Wheels in the head: Educational philosophies of authority, freedom, and culture from Confucianism to human rights (3rd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar
Strobel, A., Zimmermann, J., Schmitz, A., Reuter, M., Lis, S., Windmann, S., & Kirsch, P. (2011). Beyond revenge: Neural and genetic bases of altruistic punishment. NeuroImage, 54(1), 671–80. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.051Google Scholar
Suitor, J. J., & Carter, R. S. (1999). Jocks, nerds, babes and thugs: A research note on regional differences in adolescent gender norms. Gender Issues, 17(3), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-999-0005-9Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16(3), 495–511. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0003123XGoogle Scholar
Tost, H., Kolachana, B., Hakimi, S., Lemaitre, H., Verchinski, B. A., Mattay, V. S., Weinberger, D. R., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2010). A common allele in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) impacts prosocial temperament and human hypothalamic-limbic structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(31), 13936–41. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1003296107Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.3.506.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–28. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118Google Scholar
van de Waal, E., Borgeaud, C., & Whiten, A. (2013). Potent social learning and conformity shape a wild primate’s foraging decisions. Science, 340(6131), 483–5. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232769Google Scholar
Van Tol, H. H. M., Wu, C. M., Guan, H.-C., Ohara, K., Bunzow, J. R., Civelli, O., Kennedy, J., Seeman, P., Niznik, H. B., & Jovanovic, V. (1992). Multiple dopamine D4 receptor variants in the human population. Nature, 358(6382), 149–52. https://doi.org/10.1038/358149a0Google Scholar
Varnum, M. E. W., Na, J., Murata, A., & Kitayama, S. (2012). Social class differences in N400 indicate differences in spontaneous trait inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 518–26. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0026104Google Scholar
Verbeke, W. J. M. I., Pozharliev, R., Van Strien, J. W., Belschak, F., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2014). “I am resting but rest less well with you.” The moderating effect of anxious attachment style on alpha power during EEG resting state in a social context. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 486. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00486Google Scholar
Wager, T. D., Davidson, M. L., Hughes, B. L., Lindquist, M. A., & Ochsner, K. N. (2008). Prefrontal-subcortical pathways mediating successful emotion regulation. Neuron, 59(6), 1037–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.006Google Scholar
White, K. R., Crites, S. L. Jr., Taylor, J. H., & Corral, G. (2009). Wait, what? Assessing stereotype incongruities using the N400 ERP component. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4(2), 191–8. http://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp004Google Scholar
Whiten, A. (2019). Conformity and over-imitation: An integrative review of variant. In Naguib, M., Barrett, L., Healy, S. D., Podos, J., Simmons, L. W., & Zuk, M. (Eds.), Advances in the study of behavior (Vol. 51, pp. 31–75). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.asb.2018.12.003Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Horner, V., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2005). Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437(7059), 737–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04047Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Shrum, L. J. (2009). The influence of self-construal on impulsive consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(5), 838–50. https://doi.org/10.1086/593687.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×