Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T09:08:07.506Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 19 - Preventing Cognitive Decline and Dementia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 November 2019

By
Yat-Fung Shea  and
Steven T. DeKosky
Edited by
Kenneth M. Heilman  and
Stephen E. Nadeau
Kenneth M. Heilman
Affiliation:
University of Florida
Stephen E. Nadeau
Affiliation:
University of Florida
Get access

Summary

Early diagnosis and treatment, delay of progression, and prevention of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are all interrelated and are targets for pharmaceutical and behavioral interventions. Depending on their mechanisms, medications directed at treatment or aimed at slowing the progression of disease may be candidates for disease prevention as well. As we have learned more about AD over the past two decades, experienced clinicians have become increasingly skilled at diagnosing AD earlier in the course of this disease and on the basis of milder symptoms. An isolated symptom of memory loss, termed mild cognitive impairment (MCI), appears to be one of the most common initial presentations of AD. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, neuroimaging, and blood biomarkers hold promise for improving diagnostic certainty even in cases with mild cognitive symptoms. Researchers worldwide are seeking to identify treatments or changes in lifestyle (e.g., diet, exercise, and mental activity) that would decrease the risk of developing AD.

Keywords

mild cognitive impairment (MCI)preventionAlzheimier’sdiagnosis
Type
Chapter
Information
Cognitive Changes and the Aging Brain , pp. 291 - 306
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Mukadam, N LG. Reducing the stigma associated with dementia: approaches and goals. Aging Health. 2012;8:377–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Association, AP. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livingston, G, Sommerlad, A, Orgeta, V, Costafreda, SG, Huntley, J, Ames, D, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. Lancet. 2017;390(10113):2673–734.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. Major Issues in Cognitive Aging. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.Google Scholar
Alzheimer’s Disease International. World Alzheimer Report 2016. Available from www.alz.co.uk/research/world-report-2016.Google Scholar
Deb, A, Thornton, JD, Sambamoorthi, U, Innes, K. Direct and indirect cost of managing Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in the United States. Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res. 2017;17(2):189–202.Google Scholar
Johnson, KA, Minoshima, S, Bohnen, NI, Donohoe, KJ, Foster, NL, Herscovitch, P, et al. Appropriate use criteria for amyloid PET: a report of the Amyloid Imaging Task Force, the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, and the Alzheimer’s Association. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9(1):e1–e16.Google Scholar
Jansen, WJ, Ossenkoppele, R, Knol, DL, Tijms, BM, Scheltens, P, Verhey, FR, et al. Prevalence of cerebral amyloid pathology in persons without dementia: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015;313(19):1924–38.Google Scholar
Doody, RS, Thomas, RG, Farlow, M, Iwatsubo, T, Vellas, B, Joffe, S, et al. Phase 3 trials of solanezumab for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(4):311–21.Google Scholar
Egan, MF, Kost, J, Tariot, PN, Aisen, PS, Cummings, JL, Vellas, B, et al. Randomized trial of verubecestat for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(18):1691–703.Google Scholar
Honig, LS, Vellas, B, Woodward, M, Boada, M, Bullock, R, Borrie, M, et al. Trial of solanezumab for mild dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(4):321–30.Google Scholar
Salloway, S, Sperling, R, Fox, NC, Blennow, K, Klunk, W, Raskind, M, et al. Two phase 3 trials of bapineuzumab in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(4):322–33.Google Scholar
Brookmeyer, R, Gray, S, Kawas, C. Projections of Alzheimer’s disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset. Am J Public Health. 1998;88(9):1337–42.Google Scholar
Schelke, MW, Attia, P, Palenchar, DJ, Kaplan, B, Mureb, M, Ganzer, CA, et al. Mechanisms of risk reduction in the clinical practice of Alzheimer’s disease prevention. Front Aging Neurosci. 2018;10:96.Google Scholar
Ott, A, van Rossum, CT, van Harskamp, F, van de Mheen, H, Hofman, A, Breteler, MM. Education and the incidence of dementia in a large population-based study: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology. 1999;52(3):663–6.Google Scholar
Qiu, C, Backman, L, Winblad, B, Aguero-Torres, H, Fratiglioni, L. The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen Project. Arch Neurol. 2001;58(12):2034–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langa, KM, Larson, EB, Crimmins, EM, Faul, JD, Levine, DA, Kabeto, MU, et al. A comparison of the prevalence of dementia in the United States in 2000 and 2012. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(1):51–8.Google Scholar
Langa, KM, Larson, EB, Karlawish, JH, Cutler, DM, Kabeto, MU, Kim, SY, et al. Trends in the prevalence and mortality of cognitive impairment in the United States: is there evidence of a compression of cognitive morbidity? Alzheimers Dement. 2008;4(2):134–44.Google Scholar
Manton, KC, Gu, XL, Ukraintseva, SV. Declining prevalence of dementia in the U.S. elderly population. Adv Gerontol. 2005;16:30–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Qiu, C, von Strauss, E, Backman, L, Winblad, B, Fratiglioni, L. Twenty-year changes in dementia occurrence suggest decreasing incidence in central Stockholm, Sweden. Neurology. 2013;80(20):1888–94.Google Scholar
Satizabal, CL, Beiser, AS, Chouraki, V, Chene, G, Dufouil, C, Seshadri, S. Incidence of dementia over three decades in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(6):523–32.Google Scholar
Schrijvers, EM, Verhaaren, BF, Koudstaal, PJ, Hofman, A, Ikram, MA, Breteler, MM. Is dementia incidence declining? Trends in dementia incidence since 1990 in the Rotterdam Study. Neurology. 2012;78(19):1456–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, KY, Wang, W, Wu, JJ, Liu, L, Theodoratou, E, Car, J, et al. Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia in China, 1990–2010: a systematic review and analysis. Lancet. 2013;381(9882):2016–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, HH, Buracchio, TJ, Fisher, GG, Kiyohara, Y, Meguro, K, Tanizaki, Y, et al. Trends in the prevalence of dementia in Japan. Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;2012:956354.Google ScholarPubMed
Okamura, H, Ishii, S, Ishii, T, Eboshida, A. Prevalence of dementia in Japan: a systematic review. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2013;36(1–2):111–18.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, MJ. Brain reserve and the prevention of dementia. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2008;21(3):296–302.Google Scholar
Meng, X, D’Arcy, C. Education and dementia in the context of the cognitive reserve hypothesis: a systematic review with meta-analyses and qualitative analyses. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(6):e38268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akbaraly, TN, Portet, F, Fustinoni, S, Dartigues, JF, Artero, S, Rouaud, O, et al. Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly: results from the Three-City Study. Neurology. 2009;73(11):854–61.Google Scholar
Karp, A, Paillard-Borg, S, Wang, HX, Silverstein, M, Winblad, B, Fratiglioni, L. Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2006;21(2):65–73.Google Scholar
Lee, ATC, Richards, M, Chan, WC, Chiu, HFK, Lee, RSY, Lam, LCW. Association of daily intellectual activities with lower risk of incident dementia among older Chinese adults. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(7):697–703.Google Scholar
Paillard-Borg, S, Fratiglioni, L, Winblad, B, Wang, HX. Leisure activities in late life in relation to dementia risk: principal component analysis. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2009;28(2):136–44.Google Scholar
Paillard-Borg, S, Fratiglioni, L, Xu, W, Winblad, B, Wang, HX. An active lifestyle postpones dementia onset by more than one year in very old adults. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;31(4):835–42.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M, Brayne, C, Sachdev, P, Wilcock, G, Matthews, F, Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. Cognitive lifestyle and long-term risk of dementia and survival after diagnosis in a multicenter population-based cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;173(9):1004–12.Google Scholar
Verghese, J, Lipton, RB, Katz, MJ, Hall, CB, Derby, CA, Kuslansky, G, et al. Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(25):2508–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, RS, Bennett, DA, Bienias, JL, Aggarwal, NT, Mendes De Leon, CF, Morris, MC, et al. Cognitive activity and incident AD in a population-based sample of older persons. Neurology. 2002;59(12):1910–14.Google Scholar
Wilson, RS, Mendes De Leon, CF, Barnes, LL, Schneider, JA, Bienias, JL, Evans, DA, et al. Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. JAMA. 2002;287(6):742–8.Google Scholar
Yates, LA, Ziser, S, Spector, A, Orrell, M. Cognitive leisure activities and future risk of cognitive impairment and dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Psychogeriatr. 2016;28(11):1791–806.Google Scholar
Yang, YC, Boen, C, Gerken, K, Li, T, Schorpp, K, Harris, KM. Social relationships and physiological determinants of longevity across the human life span. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113(3):578–83.Google Scholar
Hemingway, H, Marmot, M. Evidence based cardiology: psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease. Systematic review of prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 1999;318(7196):1460–7.Google Scholar
Calvo, N, Garcia, AM, Manoiloff, L, Ibanez, A. Bilingualism and cognitive reserve: a critical overview and a plea for methodological innovations. Front Aging Neurosci. 2015;7:249.Google Scholar
Perani, D, Abutalebi, J. Bilingualism, dementia, cognitive and neural reserve. Curr Opin Neurol. 2015;28(6):618–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, FI, Bialystok, E, Freedman, M. Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology. 2010;75(19):1726–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alladi, S, Bak, TH, Duggirala, V, Surampudi, B, Shailaja, M, Shukla, AK, et al. Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology. 2013;81(22):1938–44.Google Scholar
Perani, D, Farsad, M, Ballarini, T, Lubian, F, Malpetti, M, Fracchetti, A, et al. The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer’s dementia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017;114(7):1690–5.Google Scholar
Estanga, A, Ecay-Torres, M, Ibanez, A, Izagirre, A, Villanua, J, Garcia-Sebastian, M, et al. Beneficial effect of bilingualism on Alzheimer’s disease CSF biomarkers and cognition. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;50:144–51.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E, Craik, FI, Binns, MA, Ossher, L, Freedman, M. Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology. 2014;28(2):290–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ossher, L, Bialystok, E, Craik, FI, Murphy, KJ, Troyer, AK. The effect of bilingualism on amnestic mild cognitive impairment. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2013;68(1):8–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J, Canini, M, Della Rosa, PA, Green, DW, Weekes, BS. The neuroprotective effects of bilingualism upon the inferior parietal lobule: a structural neuroimaging study in aging Chinese bilinguals. J Neurolinguistics. 2015;33:3–13.Google Scholar
Grundy, JG, Anderson, JAE, Bialystok, E. Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2017;1396(1):183–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamer, M, Chida, Y. Physical activity and risk of neurodegenerative disease: a systematic review of prospective evidence. Psychol Med. 2009;39(1):3–11.Google Scholar
Stephen, R, Hongisto, K, Solomon, A, Lonnroos, E. Physical activity and Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2017;72(6):733–9.Google Scholar
Mora, S, Cook, N, Buring, JE, Ridker, PM, Lee, IM. Physical activity and reduced risk of cardiovascular events: potential mediating mechanisms. Circulation. 2007;116(19):2110–18.Google Scholar
Aune, D, Norat, T, Leitzmann, M, Tonstad, S, Vatten, LJ. Physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2015;30(7):529–42.Google Scholar
Almeida, OP, Khan, KM, Hankey, GJ, Yeap, BB, Golledge, J, Flicker, L. 150 minutes of vigorous physical activity per week predicts survival and successful ageing: a population-based 11-year longitudinal study of 12 201 older Australian men. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(3):220–5.Google Scholar
Blake, H, Mo, P, Malik, S, Thomas, S. How effective are physical activity interventions for alleviating depressive symptoms in older people? A systematic review. Clin Rehabil. 2009;23(10):873–87.Google Scholar
de Labra, C, Guimaraes-Pinheiro, C, Maseda, A, Lorenzo, T, Millan-Calenti, JC. Effects of physical exercise interventions in frail older adults: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:154.Google Scholar
Yarrow, JF, White, LJ, McCoy, SC, Borst, SE. Training augments resistance exercise induced elevation of circulating brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Neurosci Lett. 2010;479(2):161–5.Google Scholar
Wrann, CD, White, JP, Salogiannnis, J, Laznik-Bogoslavski, D, Wu, J, Ma, D, et al. Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1alpha/FNDC5 pathway. Cell Metab. 2013;18(5):649–59.Google Scholar
Watson, GS, Craft, S. The role of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease: implications for treatment. CNS Drugs. 2003;17(1):27–45.Google Scholar
Devi, SA, Kiran, TR. Regional responses in antioxidant system to exercise training and dietary vitamin E in aging rat brain. Neurobiol Aging. 2004;25(4):501–8.Google Scholar
Somani, SM, Husain, K. Exercise training alters kinetics of antioxidant enzymes in rat tissues. Biochem Mol Biol Int. 1996;38(3):587–95.Google ScholarPubMed
Proserpio, P, Arnaldi, D, Nobili, F, Nobili, L. Integrating sleep and Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology: hints for sleep disorders management. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;63(3):871–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dmitrienko, A, D’Agostino, RB Sr. Multiplicity considerations in clinical trials. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(22):2115–22.Google Scholar
Lucey, BP, Gonzales, C, Das, U, Li, J, Siemers, ER, Slemmon, JR, et al. An integrated multi-study analysis of intra-subject variability in cerebrospinal fluid amyloid-beta concentrations collected by lumbar puncture and indwelling lumbar catheter. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2015;7(1):53.Google Scholar
Xie, L, Kang, H, Xu, Q, Chen, MJ, Liao, Y, Thiyagarajan, M, et al. Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science. 2013;342(6156):373–7.Google Scholar
Mander, BA, Winer, JR, Jagust, WJ, Walker, MP. Sleep: a novel mechanistic pathway, biomarker, and treatment target in the pathology of Alzheimer’s disease? Trends Neurosci. 2016;39(8):552–66.Google Scholar
Sprecher, KE, Koscik, RL, Carlsson, CM, Zetterberg, H, Blennow, K, Okonkwo, OC, et al. Poor sleep is associated with CSF biomarkers of amyloid pathology in cognitively normal adults. Neurology. 2017;89(5):445–53.Google Scholar
Shokri-Kojori, E, Wang, GJ, Wiers, CE, Demiral, SB, Guo, M, Kim, SW, et al. Beta-amyloid accumulation in the human brain after one night of sleep deprivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115(17):4483–8.Google Scholar
Chan, TT, Leung, WC, Li, V, Wong, KW, Chu, WM, Leung, KC, et al. Association between high cumulative dose of benzodiazepine in Chinese patients and risk of dementia: a preliminary retrospective case-control study. Psychogeriatrics. 2017;17(5):310–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penninkilampi, R, Eslick, GD. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the risk of dementia associated with benzodiazepine use, after controlling for protopathic bias. CNS Drugs. 2018;32(6):485–97.Google Scholar
Barnes, DE, Byers, AL, Gardner, RC, Seal, KH, Boscardin, WJ, Yaffe, K. Association of mild traumatic brain injury with and without loss of consciousness with dementia in US military veterans. JAMA Neurol. 2018;75(9):1055–61.Google Scholar
Li, Y, Li, Y, Li, X, Zhang, S, Zhao, J, Zhu, X, et al. Head injury as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 32 observational studies. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(1):e0169650.Google Scholar
Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health and Traumatic Brain Injury. Department of Defense coding guidance for traumatic brain injury fact sheet. Updated September 2010. Available from https://health.mil/About-MHS/Defense-Heath-Agency/Research-and-Development.Google Scholar
Abrahamson, EE, Ikonomovic, MD, Ciallella, JR, Hope, CE, Paljug, WR, Isanski, BA, et al. Caspase inhibition therapy abolishes brain trauma-induced increases in Abeta peptide: implications for clinical outcome. Exp Neurol. 2006;197(2):437–50.Google Scholar
DeKosky, ST, Abrahamson, EE, Ciallella, JR, Paljug, WR, Wisniewski, SR, Clark, RS, et al. Association of increased cortical soluble abeta42 levels with diffuse plaques after severe brain injury in humans. Arch Neurol. 2007;64(4):541–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleminger, S, Oliver, DL, Lovestone, S, Rabe-Hesketh, S, Giora, A. Head injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease: the evidence 10 years on; a partial replication. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74(7):857–62.Google Scholar
Sundstrom, A, Nilsson, LG, Cruts, M, Adolfsson, R, Van Broeckhoven, C, Nyberg, L. Increased risk of dementia following mild head injury for carriers but not for non-carriers of the APOE epsilon4 allele. Int Psychogeriatr. 2007;19(1):159–65.Google Scholar
Solfrizzi, V, Agosti, P, Lozupone, M, Custodero, C, Schilardi, A, Valiani, V, et al. Nutritional intervention as a preventive approach for cognitive-related outcomes in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;64(s1):S229–S254.Google Scholar
Psaltopoulou, T, Sergentanis, TN, Panagiotakos, DB, Sergentanis, IN, Kosti, R, Scarmeas, N. Mediterranean diet, stroke, cognitive impairment, and depression: a meta-analysis. Ann Neurol. 2013;74(4):580–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, B, Parsaik, AK, Mielke, MM, Erwin, PJ, Knopman, DS, Petersen, RC, et al. Association of Mediterranean diet with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2014;39(2):271–82.Google Scholar
Solfrizzi, V, Custodero, C, Lozupone, M, Imbimbo, BP, Valiani, V, Agosti, P, et al. Relationships of dietary patterns, foods, and micro- and macronutrients with Alzheimer’s disease and late-life cognitive disorders: a systematic review. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;59(3):815–49.Google Scholar
Lourida, I, Soni, M, Thompson-Coon, J, Purandare, N, Lang, IA, Ukoumunne, OC, et al. Mediterranean diet, cognitive function, and dementia: a systematic review. Epidemiology. 2013;24(4):479–89.Google Scholar
Valls-Pedret, C, Sala-Vila, A, Serra-Mir, M, Corella, D, de la Torre, R, Martinez-Gonzalez, MA, et al. Mediterranean diet and age-related cognitive decline: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(7):1094–103.Google Scholar
Sofi, F, Abbate, R, Gensini, GF, Casini, A. Accruing evidence on benefits of adherence to the Mediterranean diet on health: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(5):1189–96.Google Scholar
Bullo, M, Lamuela-Raventos, R, Salas-Salvado, J. Mediterranean diet and oxidation: nuts and olive oil as important sources of fat and antioxidants. Curr Top Med Chem. 2011;11(14):1797–810.Google Scholar
Del Rio, D, Rodriguez-Mateos, A, Spencer, JP, Tognolini, M, Borges, G, Crozier, A. Dietary (poly)phenolics in human health: structures, bioavailability, and evidence of protective effects against chronic diseases. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2013;18(14):1818–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janssen, CI, Kiliaan, AJ. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) from genesis to senescence: the influence of LCPUFA on neural development, aging, and neurodegeneration. Prog Lipid Res. 2014;53:1–17.Google Scholar
Solfrizzi, V, Frisardi, V, Capurso, C, D’Introno, A, Colacicco, AM, Vendemiale, G, et al. Dietary fatty acids in dementia and predementia syndromes: epidemiological evidence and possible underlying mechanisms. Ageing Res Rev. 2010;9(2):184–99.Google Scholar
Jaremka, LM, Derry, HM, Bornstein, R, Prakash, RS, Peng, J, Belury, MA, et al. Omega-3 supplementation and loneliness-related memory problems: secondary analyses of a randomized controlled trial. Psychosom Med. 2014;76(8):650–8.Google Scholar
Pase, MP, Grima, N, Cockerell, R, Stough, C, Scholey, A, Sali, A, et al. The effects of long-chain omega-3 fish oils and multivitamins on cognitive and cardiovascular function: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr. 2015;34(1):21–31.Google Scholar
Tokuda, H, Sueyasu, T, Kontani, M, Kawashima, H, Shibata, H, Koga, Y. Low doses of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids affect cognitive function in elderly Japanese men: a randomized controlled trial. J Oleo Sci. 2015;64(6):633–44.Google Scholar
Witte, AV, Kerti, L, Hermannstadter, HM, Fiebach, JB, Schreiber, SJ, Schuchardt, JP, et al. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids improve brain function and structure in older adults. Cereb Cortex. 2014;24(11):3059–68.Google Scholar
Boespflug, EL, McNamara, RK, Eliassen, JC, Schidler, MD, Krikorian, R. Fish oil supplementation increases event-related posterior cingulate activation in older adults with subjective memory impairment. J Nutr Health Aging. 2016;20(2):161–9.Google Scholar
Pietinen, P, Ascherio, A, Korhonen, P, Hartman, AM, Willett, WC, Albanes, D, et al. Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;145(10):876–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaefer, EJ, Bongard, V, Beiser, AS, Lamon-Fava, S, Robins, SJ, Au, R, et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(11):1545–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brickman, AM, Khan, UA, Provenzano, FA, Yeung, LK, Suzuki, W, Schroeter, H, et al. Enhancing dentate gyrus function with dietary flavanols improves cognition in older adults. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17(12):1798–803.Google Scholar
Kean, RJ, Lamport, DJ, Dodd, GF, Freeman, JE, Williams, CM, Ellis, JA, et al. Chronic consumption of flavanone-rich orange juice is associated with cognitive benefits: an 8-wk, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in healthy older adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(3):506–14.Google Scholar
Mastroiacovo, D, Kwik-Uribe, C, Grassi, D, Necozione, S, Raffaele, A, Pistacchio, L, et al. Cocoa flavanol consumption improves cognitive function, blood pressure control, and metabolic profile in elderly subjects: the Cocoa, Cognition, and Aging (CoCoA) Study – a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(3):538–48.Google Scholar
Nilsson, A, Salo, I, Plaza, M, Bjorck, I. Effects of a mixed berry beverage on cognitive functions and cardiometabolic risk markers; a randomized cross-over study in healthy older adults. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(11):e0188173.Google Scholar
Sarubbo, F, Esteban, S, Miralles, A, Moranta, D. Effects of resveratrol and other polyphenols on sirt1: relevance to brain function during aging. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(2):126–36.Google Scholar
Ngandu, T, Lehtisalo, J, Solomon, A, Levalahti, E, Ahtiluoto, S, Antikainen, R, et al. A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385(9984):2255–63.Google Scholar
Iadecola, C. Hypertension and dementia. Hypertension. 2014;64(1):3–5.Google Scholar
Pires, PW, Dams Ramos, CM, Matin, N, Dorrance, AM. The effects of hypertension on the cerebral circulation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2013;304(12):H1598–H1614.Google Scholar
Park, L, Zhou, J, Zhou, P, Pistick, R, El Jamal, S, Younkin, L, et al. Innate immunity receptor CD36 promotes cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(8):3089–94.Google Scholar
Faraco, G, Iadecola, C. Hypertension: a harbinger of stroke and dementia. Hypertension. 2013;62(5):810–17.Google Scholar
Iadecola, C. The pathobiology of vascular dementia. Neuron. 2013;80(4):844–66.Google Scholar
McGuinness, B, Todd, S, Passmore, P, Bullock, R. Blood pressure lowering in patients without prior cerebrovascular disease for prevention of cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009(4):CD004034.Google Scholar
Forette, F, Seux, ML, Staessen, JA, Thijs, L, Babarskiene, MR, Babeanu, S, et al. The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(18):2046–52.Google Scholar
Riederer, P, Korczyn, AD, Ali, SS, Bajenaru, O, Choi, MS, Chopp, M, et al. The diabetic brain and cognition. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2017;124(11):1431–54.Google Scholar
Femminella, GD, Bencivenga, L, Petraglia, L, Visaggi, L, Gioia, L, Grieco, FV, et al. Antidiabetic drugs in Alzheimer’s disease: mechanisms of action and future perspectives. J Diabetes Res. 2017;2017:7420796.Google Scholar
Bateman, RJ, Benzinger, TL, Berry, S, Clifford, DB, Duggan, C, Fagan, AM, et al. The DIAN-TU Next Generation Alzheimer’s prevention trial: adaptive design and disease progression model. Alzheimers Dement. 2017;13(1):8–19.Google Scholar
ClinicalTrials.gov. An Efficacy and Safety Study of Atabecestat in Participants Who Are Asymptomatic at Risk for Developing Alzheimer’s Dementia (EARLY). 2015. Updated June 13, 2018. Available from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02569398?term=JNJ-54861911.Google Scholar
Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial Research G. Results of a follow-up study to the randomized Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT). Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9(6):714–23.Google Scholar
Kryscio, RJ, Abner, EL, Caban-Holt, A, Lovell, M, Goodman, P, Darke, AK, et al. Association of antioxidant supplement use and dementia in the Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease by Vitamin E and Selenium Trial (PREADViSE). JAMA Neurol. 2017;74(5):567–73.Google Scholar
ALZFORUM. There’s no tomorrow for TOMMORROW. 2018. Updated January 25, 2018. Available from www.alzforum.org/news/research-news/theres-no-tomorrow-tommorrow#comment-26186.Google Scholar
ClinicalTrials.gov. Clinical trial of solanezumab for older individuals who may be at risk for memory loss (A4). 2013. Updated December 22, 2017. Available from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02008357?term=A4+study&rank=1.Google Scholar
DeKosky, ST, Williamson, JD, Fitzpatrick, AL, Kronmal, RA, Ives, DG, Saxton, JA, et al. Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;300(19):2253–62.Google Scholar
Fox, C, Smith, T, Maidment, I, Chan, WY, Bua, N, Myint, PK, et al. Effect of medications with anti-cholinergic properties on cognitive function, delirium, physical function and mortality: a systematic review. Age Ageing. 2014;43(5):604–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, JA, Arvanitakis, Z, Leurgans, SE, Bennett, DA. The neuropathology of probable Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol. 2009;66(2):200–8.Google Scholar
ClinicalTrails.gov. A study of crenezumab versus placebo in preclinical presenilin1 (PSEN1) E280A mutation carriers to evaluate efficacy and safety in the treatment of autosomal-dominant Alzheimer’s disease (AD), including a placebo-treated non-carrier cohort. 2013. Updated April 13, 2018. Available from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01998841.Google Scholar
ClinicalTrials.gov. Aerobic exercise for older adults at increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (BIMII). 2017. Updated January 16, 2018. Available from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03035851?term=Prevention&recrs=ad&type=Intr&cond=Alzheimer%27s+disease&draw=2&rank=16.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×