Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-669899f699-ggqkh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-27T17:06:14.865Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

45 - Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy

from PART II - CLINICAL RESEARCH

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Robert H. I. Andtbacka  and
Jeffrey E. Gershenwald
Edited by
David Lyden ,
Danny R. Welch  and
Bethan Psaila
Robert H. I. Andtbacka
Affiliation:
University of Utah, United States
Jeffrey E. Gershenwald
Affiliation:
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, United States
David Lyden
Affiliation:
Weill Cornell Medical College, New York
Danny R. Welch
Affiliation:
Weill Cornell Medical College, New York
Bethan Psaila
Affiliation:
Imperial College of Medicine, London
Get access

Summary

Primary tumor cells can metastasize to local, regional, and distant sites through four main mechanisms: direct invasion, lymphatic spread, hematogenous spread, and celomic spread. In most solid tumors, the initial form of tumor spread is lymphatic metastasis to regional lymph nodes.

In many types of cancer, the presence of regional lymph node metastasis is one of the most important predictors of recurrence and survival. Consequently, the presence of regional lymph node metastasis often leads to recommendations for additional treatment, such as more extensive lymph node surgery, radiation therapy, and/or systemic therapy (i.e., chemotherapy, biological therapy, or targeted therapy). Given the clinical relevance of regional lymph node metastasis in many types of cancer, evaluation of the regional lymph nodes is an essential component of the staging of those cancers.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of the importance of the lymphatic system in tumor metastasis, explain the concept of the sentinel lymph node (SLN) as it relates to cancer patients, describe and illustrate how SLNs are identified and assessed in clinical practice, and provide clinically salient examples of the impact of SLN metastasis on recurrence and prognosis.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system in humans has three major interrelated functions: (1) transport of interstitial fluid to the lymphoid tissue; (2) absorption of fatty acids and their transport as chyle to the circulatory system; and (3) transport of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, to lymph nodes for activation of the immune system.

Type
Chapter
Information
Cancer Metastasis
Biologic Basis and Therapeutics
 , pp. 501 - 515
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Standring, S (2009) Gray's Anatomy. 40th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Leak, LV (1970) Electron microscopic observations on lymphatic capillaries and the structural components of the connective tissue-lymph interface. Microvasc Res. 2(4): 361–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepper, MS (2001) Lymphangiogenesis and tumor metastasis: myth or reality?Clin Cancer Res. 7(3): 462–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Swartz, MA, Skobe, M (2001) Lymphatic function, lymphangiogenesis, and cancer metastasis. Microsc Res Tech. 55(2): 92–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nagy, JA, Vasile, E, Feng, D et al. (2002) Vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor induces lymphangiogenesis as well as angiogenesis. J Exp Med. 196(11): 1497–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achen, MG, Jeltsch, M, Kukk, E et al. (1998) Vascular endothelial growth factor D (VEGF-D) is a ligand for the tyrosine kinases VEGF receptor 2 (Flk1) and VEGF receptor 3 (Flt4). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95(2): 548–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldwin, ME, Stacker, SA, Achen, MG (2002) Molecular control of lymphangiogenesis. Bioessays. 24(11): 1030–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeltsch, M, Kaipainen, A, Joukov, V et al. (1997) Hyperplasia of lymphatic vessels in VEGF-C transgenic mice. Science. 276(5317): 1423–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joukov, V, Pajusola, K, Kaipainen, A et al. (1996) A novel vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF-C, is a ligand for the Flt4 (VEGFR-3) and KDR (VEGFR-2) receptor tyrosine kinases. EMBO J. 15(2): 290–98.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaipainen, A, Korhonen, J, Mustonen, T et al. (1995) Expression of the fms-like tyrosine kinase 4 gene becomes restricted to lymphatic endothelium during development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 92(8): 3566–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, SJ, Jeltsch, MM, Birkenhager, R et al. (1997) VEGF and VEGF-C: specific induction of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in the differentiated avian chorioallantoic membrane. Dev Biol. 188(1): 96–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stradling, B, Aranha, G, Gabram, S (2002) Adverse skin lesions after methylene blue injections for sentinel lymph node localization. Am J Surg. 184(4): 350–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veikkola, T, Jussila, L, Makinen, T et al. (2001) Signalling via vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 is sufficient for lymphangiogenesis in transgenic mice. EMBO J. 20(6): 1223–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fidler, IJ (2003) The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis: the ‘seed and soil’ hypothesis revisited. Nat Rev Cancer. 3(6): 453–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadras, SS, Paul, T, Bertoncini, J et al. (2003) Tumor lymphangiogenesis: a novel prognostic indicator for cutaneous melanoma metastasis and survival. Am J Pathol. 162(6): 1951–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Der, Auwera I, Eynden, GG, Colpaert, CG et al. (2005) Tumor lymphangiogenesis in inflammatory breast carcinoma: a histomorphometric study. Clin Cancer Res. 11(21): 7637–42.Google Scholar
Fernandez, MI, Bolenz, C, Trojan, L et al. (2008) Prognostic implications of lymphangiogenesis in muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Eur Urol. 53(3): 571–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renyi-Vamos, F, Tovari, J, Fillinger, J et al. (2005) Lymphangiogenesis correlates with lymph node metastasis, prognosis, and angiogenic phenotype in human non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 11(20): 7344–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beasley, NJ, Prevo, R, Banerji, S et al. (2002) Intratumoral lymphangiogenesis and lymph node metastasis in head and neck cancer. Cancer Res. 62(5): 1315–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Braithwaite, LR (1923) The flow of lymph from the ileocæcal angle, and its possible bearing on the cause of duodenal and gastric ulcer. Br J Surg. 11(41): 7–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, JH (1939) The relation of lymphatic vessels to the spread of cancer. Br J Surg. 26(103): 462–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, EA, Winship, T, Philbin, PH, Kerr, HH (1960) Observations on a “sentinel node” in cancer of the parotid. Cancer. 13: 77–8.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabañas, RM (1977) An approach for the treatment of penile carcinoma. Cancer. 39(2): 456–66.3.0.CO;2-I>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morton, DL, Wen, DR, Wong, JH et al. (1992) Technical details of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Arch Surg. 127(4): 392–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, JH, Cagle, , Morton, DL (1991) Lymphatic drainage of skin to a sentinel lymph node in a feline model. Ann Surg. 214(5): 637–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reintgen, D, Cruse, CW, Wells, K et al. (1994) The orderly progression of melanoma nodal metastases. Ann Surg. 220(6): 759–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, MI, Reintgen, D, Balch, CM (1993) Selective lymphadenectomy: emerging role for lymphatic mapping and sentinel node biopsy in the management of early stage melanoma. Semin Surg Oncol. 9(3): 219–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Thompson, JF (2001) The Sydney Melanoma Unit experience of sentinel lymphadenectomy for melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 8(9 Suppl): 44S–47S.Google ScholarPubMed
Thompson, JF, McCarthy, WH, Bosch, CM et al. (1995) Sentinel lymph node status as an indicator of the presence of metastatic melanoma in regional lymph nodes. Melanoma Res. 5(4): 255–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giuliano, AE, Dale, PS, Turner, RR (1995) Improved axillary staging of breast cancer with sentinel lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg. 222(3): 394–9; discussion 399–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giuliano, AE, Kirgan, DM, Guenther, JM, Morton, DL (1994) Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for breast cancer. Ann Surg. 220(3): 391–8; discussion 398–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krag, D, Weaver, D, Ashikaga, Tet al. (1998) The sentinel node in breast cancer–a multicenter validation study. N Engl J Med. 339(14): 941–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krag, DN, Weaver, DL, Alex, JC, Fairbank, JT (1993) Surgical resection and radiolocalization of the sentinel lymph node in breast cancer using a gamma probe. Surg Oncol. 2(6): 335–9; discussion 340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krag, DN, Anderson, SJ, Julian, TB et al. (2007) Technical outcomes of sentinel-lymph-node resection and conventional axillary-lymph-node dissection in patients with clinically node-negative breast cancer: results from the NSABP B-32 randomised Phase III trial. Lancet Oncol. 8(10): 881–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilchik, AJ, Saha, S, Wiese, D et al. (2001) Molecular staging of early colon cancer on the basis of sentinel node analysis: a multicenter Phase II trial. J Clin Oncol. 19(4): 1128–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saha, S, Wiese, D, Badin, J et al. (2000) Technical details of sentinel lymph node mapping in colorectal cancer and its impact on staging. Ann Surg Oncol. 7(2): 120–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, TF, Saha, S, Morton, DL et al. (2001) Validation of lymphatic mapping in colorectal cancer: in vivo, ex vivo, and laparoscopic techniques. Ann Surg Oncol. 8(2): 150–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiratsuka, M, Miyashiro, I, Ishikawa, O et al. (2001) Application of sentinel node biopsy to gastric cancer surgery. Surgery. 129(3): 335–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitagawa, Y, Fujii, H, Mukai, M, Kubota, T, Otani, Y, Kitajima, M (2002) Radio-guided sentinel node detection for gastric cancer. Br J Surg. 89(5): 604–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kato, H, Miyazaki, T, Nakajima, M et al. (2003) Sentinel lymph nodes with technetium-99m colloidal rhenium sulfide in patients with esophageal carcinoma. Cancer. 98(5): 932–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, PJ, Griffin, SM, Burt, AD, Lloyd, J, Karat, D, Hayes, N (2005) Sentinel node biopsy to evaluate the metastatic dissemination of oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Br J Surg. 92(1): 60–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, AG, DeHoyos, A, Kirgan, DM, Arcomano, TR, Murray, KD (1999) Intraoperative lymphatic mapping for non-small cell lung cancer: the sentinel node technique. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 117(2): 220–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nomori, H, Watanabe, K, Ohtsuka, T, Naruke, T, Suemasu, K (2004) In vivo identification of sentinel lymph nodes for clinical stage I non-small cell lung cancer for abbreviation of mediastinal lymph node dissection. Lung Cancer. 46(1): 49–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rzyman, W, Hagen, OM, Dziadziuszko, R et al. (2006) Intraoperative, radio-guided sentinel lymph node mapping in 110 nonsmall cell lung cancer patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 82(1): 237–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altgassen, C, Hertel, H, Brandstadt, A, Kohler, C, Durst, M, Schneider, A (2008) Multicenter validation study of the sentinel lymph node concept in cervical cancer: AGO Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 26(18): 2943–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kara, PP, Ayhan, A, Caner, B et al. (2008) Sentinel lymph node detection in early stage cervical cancer: a prospective study comparing preoperative lymphoscintigraphy, intraoperative gamma probe, and blue dye. Ann Nucl Med. 22(6): 487–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, YS, Tzeng, CC, Huang, KF, Kang, CY, Chia, CC, Hsieh, JF (2005) Sentinel node detection with radiocolloid lymphatic mapping in early invasive cervical cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 15(2): 273–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silva, LB, Silva-Filho, AL, Traiman, P et al. (2005) Sentinel node detection in cervical cancer with (99m)Tc-phytate. Gynecol Oncol. 97(2): 588–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadway, P, Smith, Y, Corbishley, C, Heenan, S, Watkin, NA (2007) Evaluation of dynamic lymphoscintigraphy and sentinel lymph-node biopsy for detecting occult metastases in patients with penile squamous cell carcinoma. BJU Int. 100(3): 561–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroon, BK, Horenblas, S, Meinhardt, W et al. (2005) Dynamic sentinel node biopsy in penile carcinoma: evaluation of 10 years experience. Eur Urol. 47(5): 601–6; discussion 606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morton, DL, Hoon, DS, Cochran, AJ et al. (2003) Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for early-stage melanoma: therapeutic utility and implications of nodal microanatomy and molecular staging for improving the accuracy of detection of nodal micrometastases. Ann Surg. 238(4): 538–49; discussion 549–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Morton, DL, Thompson, JF, Cochran, AJ et al. (2006) Sentinel-node biopsy or nodal observation in melanoma. N Engl J Med. 355(13): 1307–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balch, CM, Soong, S, Ross, MI et al. (2000) Long-term results of a multi-institutional randomized trial comparing prognostic factors and surgical results for intermediate thickness melanomas (1.0 to 4.0 mm). Intergroup Melanoma Surgical Trial. Ann Surg Oncol. 7(2): 87–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cascinelli, N, Morabito, A, Santinami, M, MacKie, RM, Belli, F (1998) Immediate or delayed dissection of regional nodes in patients with melanoma of the trunk: a randomised trial. WHO Melanoma Programme. Lancet. 351(9105): 793–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reintgen, DS, Cox, EB, McCarty, KS Jr, Vollmer, RT, Seigler, HF (1983) Efficacy of elective lymph node dissection in patients with intermediate thickness primary melanoma. Ann Surg. 198(3): 379–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sim, FH, Taylor, WF, Pritchard, DJ, Soule, EH (1986) Lymphadenectomy in the management of stage I malignant melanoma: a prospective randomized study. Mayo Clin Proc. 61(9): 697–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veronesi, U, Adamus, J, Bandiera, DC et al. (1977) Inefficacy of immediate node dissection in stage 1 melanoma of the limbs. N Engl J Med. 297(12): 627–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veronesi, U, Adamus, J, Bandiera, DC et al. (1982) Delayed regional lymph node dissection in stage I melanoma of the skin of the lower extremities. Cancer. 49(11): 2420–30.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rousseau, DL Jr, Ross, MI, Johnson, MM et al. (2003) Revised American Joint Committee on Cancer staging criteria accurately predict sentinel lymph node positivity in clinically node-negative melanoma patients. Ann Surg Oncol. 10(5): 569–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andtbacka, RHI, Gershenwald, JE (2009) The role of sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with thin melanoma. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 7(3): 308–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heller, R, King, B, Baekey, P, Cruse, W, Reintgen, D (1993) Identification of submicroscopic lymph node metastases in patients with malignant melanoma. Semin Surg Oncol. 9(3): 285–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Kahn, HJ, Hanna, WM, Chapman, JA et al. (2006) Biological significance of occult micrometastases in histologically negative axillary lymph nodes in breast cancer patients using the recent American Joint Committee on Cancer breast cancer staging system. Breast J. 12(4): 294–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klevesath, MB, Bobrow, LG, Pinder, SE, Purushotham, AD (2005) The value of immunohistochemistry in sentinel lymph node histopathology in breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 92(12): 2201–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, DL, Krag, DN, Manna, EA et al. (2006) Detection of occult sentinel lymph node micrometastases by immunohistochemistry in breast cancer. An NSABP protocol B-32 quality assurance study. Cancer. 107(4): 661–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goydos, JS, Patel, KN, Shih, WJ et al. (2003) Patterns of recurrence in patients with melanoma and histologically negative but RT-PCR-positive sentinel lymph nodes. J Am Coll Surg. 196(2): 196–204; discussion 204–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koyanagi, K, Bilchik, AJ, Saha, S et al. (2008) Prognostic relevance of occult nodal micrometastases and circulating tumor cells in colorectal cancer in a prospective multicenter trial. Clin Cancer Res. 14(22): 7391–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribuffo, D, Gradilone, A, Vonella, M et al. (2003) Prognostic significance of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction-negative sentinel nodes in malignant melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 10(4): 396–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scoggins, CR, Ross, MI, Reintgen, DS et al. (2006) Prospective multi-institutional study of reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction for molecular staging of melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 24(18): 2849–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaheta, HJ, Paul, T, Sotlar, K et al. (2001) Detection of melanoma cells in sentinel lymph nodes, bone marrow and peripheral blood by a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay in patients with primary cutaneous melanoma: association with Breslow's tumour thickness. Br J Dermatol. 145(2): 195–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillanders, WE, Mikhitarian, K, Hebert, R et al. (2004) Molecular detection of micrometastatic breast cancer in histopathology-negative axillary lymph nodes correlates with traditional predictors of prognosis: an interim analysis of a prospective multi-institutional cohort study. Ann Surg. 239(6): 828–37; discussion 837–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gradilone, A, Ribuffo, D, Silvestri, I et al. (2004) Detection of melanoma cells in sentinel lymph nodes by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction: prognostic significance. Ann Surg Oncol. 11(11): 983–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, W, Stall, A, Shivers, SC et al. (2000) Clinical relevance of molecular staging for melanoma: comparison of RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry staining in sentinel lymph nodes of patients with melanoma. Ann Surg. 231(6): 795–803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shivers, SC, Wang, X, Li, W et al. (1998) Molecular staging of malignant melanoma: correlation with clinical outcome. JAMA. 280(16): 1410–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takeuchi, H, Morton, DL, Kuo, C et al. (2004) Prognostic significance of molecular upstaging of paraffin-embedded sentinel lymph nodes in melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol. 22(13): 2671–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Villa, G, Agnese, G, Bianchi, P et al. (2000) Mapping the sentinel lymph node in malignant melanoma by blue dye, lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative gamma probe. Tumori. 86(4): 343–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gipponi, M, Di Somma, C, Peressini, A et al. (2004) Sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with stage I/II melanoma: Clinical experience and literature review. J Surg Oncol. 85(3): 133–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gesuelli, GC, Sartelli, M, Berbellini, A, Brianzoni, E, Simonacci, M, Sigona, M (2000) Sentinel lymph node identification in the staging of cutaneous melanoma. Blue dye vs. radioguided localization. Minerva Chir. 55(7–8): 513–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Gershenwald, JE, Tseng, CH, Thompson, W et al. (1998) Improved sentinel lymph node localization in patients with primary melanoma with the use of radiolabeled colloid. Surgery. 124(2): 203–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, Y, Truini, C, Ariyan, S (2008) A randomized study comparing the effectiveness of methylene blue dye with lymphazurin blue dye in sentinel lymph node biopsy for the treatment of cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 15(9): 2412–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salhab, M, Al Sarakbi, W, Mokbel, K (2005) Skin and fat necrosis of the breast following methylene blue dye injection for sentinel node biopsy in a patient with breast cancer. Int Semin Surg Oncol. 2: 26.Google Scholar
Uren, RF, Thompson, JF, Howman-Giles, R, Chung, DK (2006) The role of lymphoscintigraphy in the detection of lymph node drainage in melanoma. Surg Oncol Clin North Am. 15(2): 285–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uren, RF, Howman-Giles, R (2001) The role of nuclear medicine. In Cody, HS, ed. Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy. Informa HealthCare, New York, pp. 19–43.Google ScholarPubMed
Alex, JC, Krag, DN (1993) Gamma-probe guided localization of lymph nodes. Surg Oncol. 2(3): 137–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krag, DN, Meijer, SJ, Weaver, DL et al. (1995) Minimal-access surgery for staging of malignant melanoma. Arch Surg. 130(6): 654–8; discussion 659–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alazraki, NP, Eshima, D, Eshima, et al. (1997) Lymphoscintigraphy, the sentinel node concept, and the intraoperative gamma probe in melanoma, breast cancer, and other potential cancers. Semin Nucl Med. 27(1): 55–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yee, VS, Thompson, JF, McKinnon, JG et al. (2005) Outcome in 846 cutaneous melanoma patients from a single center after a negative sentinel node biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 12(6): 429–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zavagno, G, Salvo, GL, Scalco, G et al. (2008) A randomized clinical trial on sentinel lymph node biopsy versus axillary lymph node dissection in breast cancer: results of the Sentinella/GIVOM trial. Ann Surg. 247(2): 207–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balch, CM, Soong, SJ, Gershenwald, JE, Thompson, JF, Reintgen, DS, Cascinelli, N (2001) Prognostic factor analysis of 17,600 melanoma patients: validation of the American Joint Committee on Cancer melanoma staging system. J Clin Oncol. 19: 3622–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clary, BM, Brady, MS, Lewis, JJ, Coit, DG (2001) Sentinel lymph node biopsy in the management of patients with primary cutaneous melanoma: review of a large single-institutional experience with an emphasis on recurrence. Ann Surg. 233(2): 250–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dessureault, S, Soong, SJ, Ross, MI et al. (2001) Improved staging of node-negative patients with intermediate to thick melanomas (>1 mm) with the use of lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 8(10): 766–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essner, R, Conforti, A, Kelley, MC et al. (1999) Efficacy of lymphatic mapping, sentinel lymphadenectomy, and selective complete lymph node dissection as a therapeutic procedure for early-stage melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 6(5): 442–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershenwald, J, Thompson, W, Mansfield, P et al. (1999) Multi-institutional lymphatic mapping experience: The prognostic value of sentinel lymph node status in 612 stage I or II melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol. 17(3): 976–983.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershenwald, JE, Andtbacka, RH, Prieto, VG et al. (2008) Microscopic tumor burden in sentinel lymph nodes predicts synchronous nonsentinel lymph node involvement in patients with melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 26(26): 4296–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andtbacka, RHI, Bedrosian, I, Ross, MI et al. (2006) AJCC nodal factors and microscopic tumor burden predict recurrence in sentinel node positive stage III melanoma (Abstract ID: 200700). In The Society of Surgical Oncology, 59th Annual Meeting; March 23–26, 2006; San Diego, CA.Google Scholar
Gershenwald, JE, Prieto, VG, Johnson, MM et al. (2005) Heterogeneity of microscopic stage III melanoma in the SLN era: Implications for AJCC/UICC staging and future clinical trial design (Abstract ID: AB02657). In 6th World Congress on Melanoma; September 6–10, 2005; Vancouver, BC, Canada.Google Scholar
Kirkwood, JM, Strawderman, MH, Ernstoff, MS, Smith, TJ, Borden, EC, Blum, RH (1996) Interferon alfa-2b adjuvant therapy of high-risk resected cutaneous melanoma: the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Trial EST 1684. J Clin Oncol. 14(1): 7–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkwood, JM, Ibrahim, JG, Sosman, JA et al. (2001) High-dose interferon alfa-2b significantly prolongs relapse-free and overall survival compared with the GM2-KLH/QS-21 vaccine in patients with resected stage IIB-III melanoma: results of intergroup trial E1694/S9512/C509801. J Clin Oncol. 19(9): 2370–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkwood, JM, Ibrahim, J, Lawson, DH et al. (2001) High-dose interferon alfa-2b does not diminish antibody response to GM2 vaccination in patients with resected melanoma: results of the Multicenter Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Phase II Trial E2696. J Clin Oncol. 19(5): 1430–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkwood, JM, Ibrahim, JG, Sondak, VK et al. (2000) High- and low-dose interferon alfa-2b in high-risk melanoma: first analysis of intergroup trial E1690/S9111/C9190. J Clin Oncol. 18(12): 2444–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singletary, SE, Greene, FL (2003) Revision of breast cancer staging: the 6th edition of the TNM Classification. Semin Surg Oncol. 21(1): 53–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, CE, Kiluk, JV, Riker, AI et al. (2008) Significance of sentinel lymph node micrometastases in human breast cancer. J Am Coll Surg. 206(2): 261–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bafounta, ML, Beauchet, A, Chagnon, S, Saiag, P (2004) Ultrasonography or palpation for detection of melanoma nodal invasion: a meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol. 5(11): 673–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, BB, Merton, DA, Liu, JB et al. (2004) Sentinel lymph nodes in a swine model with melanoma: contrast-enhanced lymphatic US. Radiology. 230(3): 727–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho Shon, IA, Chung, DK, Saw, RP, Thompson, JF (2008) Imaging in cutaneous melanoma. Nucl Med Commun. 29(10): 847–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buzaid, AC, Sandler, AB, Mani, S et al. (1993) Role of computed tomography in the staging of primary melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 11(4): 638–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGreevy, JM, Cannon, MJ, Grissom, CB (2003) Minimally invasive lymphatic mapping using fluorescently labeled vitamin B12. J Surg Res. 111(1): 38–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyashiro, I, Miyoshi, N, Hiratsuka, M et al. (2008) Detection of sentinel node in gastric cancer surgery by indocyanine green fluorescence imaging: comparison with infrared imaging. Ann Surg Oncol. 15(6): 1640–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogasawara, Y, Ikeda, H, Takahashi, M, Kawasaki, K, Doihara, H (2008) Evaluation of breast lymphatic pathways with indocyanine green fluorescence imaging in patients with breast cancer. World J Surg. 32(9): 1924–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kusano, M, Tajima, Y, Yamazaki, K, Kato, M, Watanabe, M, Miwa, M (2008) Sentinel node mapping guided by indocyanine green fluorescence imaging: a new method for sentinel node navigation surgery in gastrointestinal cancer. Dig Surg. 25(2): 103–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frangioni, JV, Kim, SW, Ohnishi, S, Kim, S, Bawendi, MG (2007) Sentinel lymph node mapping with type-II quantum dots. Methods Mol Biol. 374: 147–59.Google ScholarPubMed
Hama, Y, Koyama, Y, Urano, Y, Choyke, PL, Kobayashi, H (2007) Simultaneous two-color spectral fluorescence lymphangiography with near-infrared quantum dots to map two lymphatic flows from the breast and the upper extremity. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 103(1): 23–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ishikawa, K, Yasuda, K, Shiromizu, A, Etoh, T, Shiraishi, N, Kitano, S (2007) Laparoscopic sentinel node navigation achieved by infrared ray electronic endoscopy system in patients with gastric cancer. Surg Endosc. 21(7): 1131–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parungo, CP, Ohnishi, S, Kim, SW et al. (2005) Intraoperative identification of esophageal sentinel lymph nodes with near-infrared fluorescence imaging. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 129(4): 844–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sevick-Muraca, EM, Sharma, R, Rasmussen, JC et al. (2008) Imaging of lymph flow in breast cancer patients after microdose administration of a near-infrared fluorophore: feasibility study. Radiology. 246(3): 734–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soltesz, EG, Kim, S, Laurence, RG et al. (2005) Intraoperative sentinel lymph node mapping of the lung using near-infrared fluorescent quantum dots. Ann Thorac Surg. 79(1):269–77; discussion 269–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×