Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T01:35:11.789Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Science, the Universities, and other Public Spaces: Teaching Science in Europe and the Americas

from Part I - Science and Society

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2008

By
Laurence Brockliss
Edited by
Roy Porter
Roy Porter
Affiliation:
Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, University College London
Get access

Summary

To date there has been little detailed research into the history of institutionalized science teaching in the eighteenth century, apart from work done on the British Isles, France, and the Netherlands. The paucity of data reflects the fact that until recently historians of eighteenth-century natural philosophy have taken little interest in the history of science in the classroom, assuming the subject of small importance. This chapter aims to demonstrate that such a judgment is misguided even if the conclusions of such a study must necessarily be provisional. The history of science teaching in the Age of Reason throws light on the speed and manner with which new theories and discoveries became part of the European cultural inheritance. More important, it also advances our understanding of the way in which distinctive natural sciences came to be defined and stabilized and distinctive national scientific traditions began to emerge at the end of the period.

AROUND 1700

Traditionally, public teaching in the natural sciences was the preserve of the universities, where the resposibility for teaching the gamut of human knowledge was divided among the faculties of arts, theology, law (sometimes divided into separate canon and civil law faculties), and medicine. By 1700, after three centuries of expansion, the number of Europe’s universities had grown from 40 to some 150, and they were to be found in all parts of the continent except Russia. A further fifteen or so universities or university colleges had also been founded in the New World, including three in the then English North American colonies: Harvard, Yale, and the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge History of Science , pp. 44 - 86
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerknecht, Erwin, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967).Google Scholar
Addy, George M., The Enlightenment in the University of Salamanca (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1966).Google Scholar
Albinina, Salvador, Universidad e Ilustración: Valencia en la época de Carlos III (Valencia: University of Valencia Press, 1988).Google Scholar
Artz, Frederick B., The Development of Technical Education in France, 1500–1850 (Cambridge, MA: Society for the History of Technology, 1966)Google Scholar
Belhoste, Bruno, “Les Origines de l’Ecole Polytechnique. Des anciennes écoles d’ingénieurs à l’Ecole Centrale des Travaux publics,” in Julia, Dominique (ed.), Les Enfants de la Patrie, special no. of Histoire de l’Education, 42 (1989)Google Scholar
Ben-David, Joseph, “The Rise and Decline of France as a Scientific Centre,” Minerva, 8 (1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Morris, Social Change and Scientific Organization: The Royal Institution, 1799–1844 (London: Heinemann, 1978).Google Scholar
Biagioli, Mario, “Scientific Revolution, Social Bricolage and Etiquette,” in Porter, Roy and Teich, Mikuláš (eds.), The Scientific Revolution in National Context (Cambridge University Press, 1992)Google Scholar
Bill, Edward G. W., Education at Christ Church Oxford, 1660–1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988).Google Scholar
Boorstin, Daniel, The Americans, i: The Colonial Experience (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958)Google Scholar
Boschung, Urs (ed.), Johannes Gessners Pariser Tagebuch 1727 (Bern: Hans Huber, 1985)Google Scholar
Brechka, Frank T., Gerard Van Swieten and His World, 1700–1772 (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockliss, Laurence W. B., French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Cultural History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987).Google Scholar
Brockliss, Laurence W. B., “Descartes, Gassendi, and the Reception of the Mechanical Philosophy in the French Collèges de Plein Exercice, 1640–1730,” Perspective on Science, 3 (1995)Google Scholar
Brockliss, Laurence W. B., “The European University in the Age of Revolution, 1789–1850,” in Brock, Michael G. and Curthoys, Mark C. (eds.), The History of the University of Oxford, vol. 6: Nineteenth- Century Oxford, Part I (1997)Google Scholar
Brockliss, Laurence W. B. and Jones, Colin, The Medical World of Early Modern France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997)Google Scholar
Brockliss, Laurence W. B., “Civility and Science: From Self-Control to Control of Nature,” Sartoniana, 10 (1997).Google Scholar
Brunet, Pierre, L’Introduction des théories de Newton en France au XVIIIe siècle, vol. i: Avant 1738 (Paris: Albert Blanchard, 1931).Google Scholar
Buchanan, Robert A., The Engineers: A History of the Engineering Profession in Britain, 1750–1914 (London: Jessica Kingley, 1989).Google Scholar
Burke, Michael E., The Royal College of San Carlos: Surgery and Spanish Medical Reform in the Late Eighteenth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1977).Google Scholar
Cavazza, Marta, “Orti botanici, teatri anatomici, osservatori astronomici, musei e gabinetti scientifici,” in Brizzi, G. P. and Verger, J. (eds.), Le università dell’Europa. Le scuole e i maestri. L’Età moderna (Milan: Amilcare Pizzi, 1995)Google Scholar
Chaptal, Jean-Antoine, Mes Souvenirs, ed. Chaptal, A. (Paris: E. Plon, 1893).Google Scholar
Chartier, Roger, Compère, Marie-Madeleine, and Julia, Dominique, L’Education en France du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: SEDES, 1976)Google Scholar
Chisick, Harvey, “Institutional Innovation in Popular Education in Eighteenth-Century France: Two Examples,” French Historical Studies, 10 (1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Bernard, Science and the Founding Fathers: Science in the Political Thought of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and James Madison (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995).Google Scholar
Cohen, I. Bernard, Some Early Tools of American Science: An Account of the Early Scientific Instruments and Mineralogical and Biological Collections in Harvard University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrads, Norbert, Ritterakademien der Frühen Neuzeit. Bildung als Standesprivileg im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht, 1982)Google Scholar
Crosland, Maurice, Science under Control: The French Academy of Sciences 1795–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dainville, François, “L’Enseignement des mathématiques dans les collèges jésuites de France du seizième au dix-huitième siècle,” Revue d’histoire des sciences, 7 (1954)Google Scholar
d’Alembert, Jean Le Rond, “Collège,” in Diderot, Denis (ed.), Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, 17 vols. (Paris and Neutchâtel: Briasson et al and Samuel Faulche, 1751–65), vol. 3.Google Scholar
d’Azyr, Félix Vicq, “Nouveau Plan de constitution pour la médecine en France,” in Histoire et mémoires de la Société Royale de Médecine: Années 1787–1788, 9 (Paris, 1790), 19Google Scholar
Demainbray, Stephen, A Short Account of a Course of Natural and Experimental Philosophy (London, 1754)Google Scholar
Descartes, , Oeuvres philosophiques, ed. Alquié, F., 3 vols. (Paris: Garnier, 1963–73), vol. I.Google Scholar
Donovan, Arthur L., Philosophical Chemistry and the Scottish Enlightenment: The Doctrines and Discoveries of William Cullen and Joseph Black (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1975).Google Scholar
Dooley, Brendan, “Science Teaching as a Career at Padua in the Early Eighteenth Century: The Case of Giovanni Poleni,” History of Universities, 4 (1984).Google Scholar
Dow, Derek and Moss, Michael, “The Medical Curriculum at Glasgow in the Early Nineteenth Century,” History of Universities, 7 (1988)Google Scholar
Duchesneau, François, La Physiologie des lumières: empirisme, modèles et théories (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1982)Google Scholar
Dulieu, Louis, La Medecine à Montpellier, 3. L’Epoque Classique, 2 pts., I vol. (Avignon: Presse universelle, 1983–6), pt. iGoogle Scholar
Elena, Alberto, “Science in Spanish Universities,” in Pancaldi, Giuliano (ed.), Le università e le scienze. Prospettive storiche e attuali (Bologna: Aldo Martello, 1993)Google Scholar
Engelbrecht, Helmut, Geschichte der österreichischen Bildungswesen: Erziehung und Unterricht auf dem Boden Österreichs, 3 vols. (Vienna: Österreich Bundesverlag, 1982–4), vol. 3Google Scholar
Erben, W., “Enstehung der Universitätsseminare,” Internationale Monatsschrift für Wissenschaft, Kunst und Technik (1913)Google Scholar
Feingold, Mordechai, The Mathematicians’ Apprenticeship: Science, Universities and Society in England, 1560–1640 (Cambridge University Press, 1984)Google Scholar
Feingold, , “The Mathematics Sciences and New Philosophies,” in The History of the University of Oxford (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984–), vol. 4: The Seventeenth Century (1997), Tyacke, Nicholas (ed.)Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel, Naissance de la clinique (Paris: PUF, 1963)Google Scholar
Fox, Robert, “Scientific Enterprise and the Patronage of Research in France,” Minerva, 11 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore (ed.), Linnaeus: The Man and His Work (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).Google Scholar
Frijhoff, Willem, “Patterns,” in A History of the University in Europe (Cambridge University Press, 1992–), vol. 2: Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), ed. Ridder-Symoens, Hilde (1995) (tables and patterns)Google Scholar
Frijhoff, Willem, “Surplus ou déficit: Hypothèses sur le nombre réel des étudiants en Allemagne à l’époque moderne (1576–1815),” Francia, 7 (1979).Google Scholar
Gelfand, Toby, Professionalizing Modern Medicine: Paris Surgeons and Medical Science and Institutions in the Eighteenth Century (London: Greenwood, 1980)Google Scholar
Ghetti, M. Cecilia, “Struttura e organizzazione dell’università di Padova della metà del 1700 al 1797,” Quaderni per la storia dell’Università di Padova, 16 (1983).Google Scholar
Golinski, J., Science as Public Culture: Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760–1820 (Cambridge University Press, 1992)Google Scholar
Grant, Alexander Sir, The Story of the University of Edinburgh During its First Three Hundred Years, 2 vols. (London: Longman, 1884), vol. IGoogle Scholar
Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, “Grandes Ecoles, Petite Université: Some Puzzled Remarks on Higher Education in Mathematics in France, 1795–1840,” History of Universities, 7 (1988).Google Scholar
Green, John, The Academic: Or a Disputation on the State of the University of Cambridge (London: C. Say, 1750).Google Scholar
Gunther, Robert T., Early Science at Cambridge (London: facsimile ed., 1969)Google Scholar
Haigh, Elizabeth, Xavier Bichat and the Medical Theory of the Eighteenth Century (Medical History, suppl. 4; London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1984)Google Scholar
Hans, Nicholas, New Trends in Education in the Eighteenth Century (London: Routledge, 1951)Google Scholar
Hardcastle, Hon. Mrs. (ed.), Life of John, Lord Campbell, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1881), vol. IGoogle Scholar
Harris, Steven J., “Transposing the Merton Thesis: Apostolic Spirituality and the Establishment of the Jesuit Scientific Tradition,” in Feldkay, Rivka and Elkana, Yehuda (eds.), “After Merton”: Protestant and Catholic Science in Seventeenth-Century Europe, special issue of Science in Context, 3:1 (1989).Google Scholar
Harrison, John Fletcher Clews, Learning and Living, 1790–1860: A History of the Adult Education Movement (London: Routledge, 1961)Google Scholar
Heyd, Michael, Between Orthodoxy and Enlightenment: Jean-Robert Chouet and the Introduction of Cartesian Science in the Academy of Geneva (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1982)Google Scholar
Home, Roderick W., “The Notion of Experimental Physics in Eighteenth-Century France,” in Pitt, J. C. (ed.), Change and Progress in Modern Science (University of Western Ontario Series in Philosophy of Science, 27; London, Ontario: D. Reidel, 1985).Google Scholar
Hufbauer, Karl, The Formation of the German Chemical Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982)Google Scholar
Julia, Dominique, “Une réforme impossible: le changement du cursus dans la France du 18e siècle,” Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales (1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jungnickel, C., “Teaching and Research in the Physical Sciences and Mathematics in Saxony, 1820–1850,” ibid., 15 (1985)Google Scholar
Kant, Immanuel, Streit der Facultäten, ed. Reich, Klaus (Hamburg, 1959).Google Scholar
Kerner, Robert J., Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century (New York: AMS Press, 1932)Google Scholar
Körner, Stephen, Kant (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959).Google Scholar
Laissus, Yves, “Le Jardin du roi,” in Taton, René (ed.), L’Enseignement et diffusion des sciences au dixhuitième siècle (Paris: Hermann, 1963)Google Scholar
Lanning, John T., Academic Culture in the Spanish Colonies (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1940)Google Scholar
Lanning, , The Royal Protomedicato: The Regulation of the Medical Professions in the Spanish Empire (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985)Google Scholar
Laulan, R., “L’Enseignement à l’Ecole Royale Militaire de Paris, de l’origine à la réforme du comte de Saint-Germain,” Information historique, 19 (1957)Google Scholar
Lawrence, Christopher, “Ornate Physicians and Learned Artisans: Edinburgh Medical Men, 1726–1776,” in Bynum, W. F. and Porter, Roy S. (eds.), William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World (Cambridge University Press, 1985)Google Scholar
Lawrence, Susan C., Charitable Knowledge: Hospital Pupils and Practitioners in Eighteenth-Century London (Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leedham-Green, Elisabeth, A Concise History of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
Leith, James A. (ed.), Facets of Education in the Eighteenth Century (Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 167: Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1977)Google Scholar
Lesch, John E., Science and Medicine in France: The Emergence of Experimental Physiology, 1790–1855 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindroth, Sten, A History of the University of Uppsala, 1477–1977 (Uppsala: Uppsala University, 1976)Google Scholar
Loescher, M. G., “Oratio inauguralis habita die 2. ian. A. MDCCXIV de physica ad rem publicam accommodanda,” in Loescher, , Physica experimentalis compendiosa in usum juventutis academicae adornata… (Wittenberg: G. Zimmermann, 1715).Google Scholar
Lunsingh-Scheuleer, Theodor, “Un ampithéâtre d’anatomie moralisée,” in Lunsingh-Scheuleer, and Meyjes, Guillame H. M. Posthumus (eds.), Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century: An Exchange of Learning (Leiden: Brill, 1975)Google Scholar
Marchand, Philippe, “Un modèle éducatif original à la veille de la Révolution,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 22 (1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, Henry, The Enlightenment in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976)Google Scholar
McClaughlin, Trevor, “Le concept de science chez Jacques Rohault,” Revue d’histoire des sciences, 30 (1977)Google Scholar
McClellan, James E. III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985)Google Scholar
McClelland, Charles E., State, Society and University in Germany, 1700–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1980)Google Scholar
McDowell, Robert B. and Webb, David, Trinity College Dublin 1592–1952: An Academic History (Cambridge University Press, 1982)Google Scholar
McLachlan, Herbert, English Education under the Test Acts (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931)Google Scholar
Meinel, Christoph, “Artibus Academicis Inseranda’: Chemistry’s Place in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Universities,” History of Universities, 7 (1988)Google Scholar
Meinhardt, G., Die Universität Göttingen: ihre Entwicklung und Geschichte von 1734–1974 (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1977).Google Scholar
Menze, Clemens, Die Bildungsreform Wilhelm von Humboldts (Hanover: Schroedel, 1975)Google Scholar
Mercer, Christia, “The Vitality and Importance of Early Modern Aristotelianism,” in Sorrell, Tom (ed.), The Rise of Modern Philosophy: The Tension Between the New and Traditional Philosophy fom Machiavelli to Leibniz (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993)Google Scholar
Millburn, John R., Benjamin Martin: Supplement (London: Vade-Mecum Press, 1993)Google Scholar
Moravia, Sergio, Il tramonto dell’ illuminismo: filosofia e politica nella società francese, 1771–1810 (Bari: Laterzo, 1968).Google Scholar
Morton, Alan Q. and Wess, James A., Public and Private Science: The King George III Collection (Oxford: Oxford University Press in association with the Science Museum, 1996)Google Scholar
Muhlack, U., “Die Universitäten in Zeichen von Neuhumanismus und Idealismus,” in Baumgart, Peter and Hammerstein, Notker (eds.), Beiträge zu Problemen deutscher Universitätsgründungen der frühen Neuzeit (Nendeln: KTO Press, 1978).Google Scholar
Müller, Rainer A., Geschichte der Universität von der mittelalterlichen Universitas zur deutschen Hochschule (Munich: Callway, 1990)Google Scholar
North, John, “The Quadrivium” in Ridder-Symoens, Hilde (ed.), A History of the University in Europe, vol. i: Universities in the Middle Ages (1992).Google Scholar
Olesko, Kathryn M. (ed.), Science in Germany: The Intersection of Institutional and Intellectual Issues, Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 5 (Philadelphia: Sheridan Press, 1989)Google Scholar
Outram, Dorinda, “Politics and Vocation: French Science, 1793–1830,” British Journal for the History of Science, 13 (1980).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, Robert Roswell, The Improvement of Humanity: Education and the French Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peset, Mariano, Carlos III y la legislación sobre universidades (Madrid: Ministerio de Justicia, 1988).Google Scholar
Pomian, Krzystof, Collectors and Curiosities: Paris and Venice 1500–1800, English trans. (Cambridge University Press, 1990)Google Scholar
Porter, Roy S., “Science, Provincial Culture and Public Opinion in Enlightenment England,” British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 3 (1980)Google Scholar
Prévot, André, L’Enseignement technique chez les Frères des écoles chrétiennes aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles (Paris: Ligel, 1964).Google Scholar
Roche, Daniel, Le Siècle des lumières en province: Académies et académiciens provinciaux, 1680–1789, 2 vols. (Paris: Mouton, 1978), vol. IGoogle Scholar
Roger, Jacques, Buffon: Un philosophe au jardin du roi (Paris: Fayard, 1989).Google Scholar
Rosner, Lisa, Medical Education in the Age of Improvement: Edinburgh Students and Apprentices, 1760–1820 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991)Google Scholar
Rössler, Emil F., Die Gründung der Universität Göttingen (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1855)Google Scholar
Rouxeau, Alfred, Un étudiant en médecine quimpérois: Guillaume-François Laënnec aux derniers jours de l’ancien régime (Nantes: L’Imprimerie du “Nouvelliste,” 1926)Google Scholar
Ruestow, Edward G., Physics at Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Leiden: Philosophy and the New Science in the University (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Charles B., “Towards a Reassessment of Renaissance Aristotelianism,” History of Science, 11 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, Charles B., “Science in the Italian Universities in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries,” in Crosland, Maurice P. (ed.), The Emergence of Science in Western Europe (London: Macmillan, 1975)Google Scholar
Schrader, Wilhelm, Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1894), vol. IGoogle Scholar
Schubring, Gert (ed.), “Eisamkeit und Freiheit” neu besichtig. Universitätsreformen und Disziplinenbildung in Preussen als Modell für Wissenschaftspolitik im Europa des 19. Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1991).Google Scholar
Shafer, Robert J., The Economic Societies in the Spanish World, 1753–1821 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1958).Google Scholar
Shapin, Steven, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994)Google Scholar
Shepherd, C. M., “Newtonianism in the Scottish Universities in the Eighteenth Century,” in Campbell, R. H. and Skinner, Andrew S. (eds.), The Origins of the Scottish Enlightenment (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1982), chap. 4.Google Scholar
Shinn, Terry, L’Ecole Polytechnique 1794–1914 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1980)Google Scholar
Smith, Geoffrey, Science for a Polite Society: Gender, Culture and the Demonstration of Enlightenment (Oxford: Westview Press, 1995)Google Scholar
Snelders, H. A. M., “Chemistry at the Dutch Universities, 1669–1900,” Academia Analecta: Mededelingen van de koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België, Klasse der Wetenschappen, 48:4 (1986)Google Scholar
Spranger, Eduard, Wilhelm von Humboldt und die Reform des Bildungswesens (Tübingen: Niemayer, 1960).Google Scholar
Sprigge, Timothy L. S. et al. (eds.), The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, vol. I (London: Athlone Press, 1968)Google Scholar
Stewart, Larry, The Rise of Public Science: Rhetoric, Technology and Natural Philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660–1750 (Cambridge University Press, 1992)Google Scholar
Sutherland, Lucy S. and Mitchell, Leslie G. (eds.), The History of the University of Oxford, vol. 5: The Eighteenth Century (1986)Google Scholar
Ten, Antonio E., “El convictorio carolino de Lima y la introducción de la ciencia moderna en el Perú virreinal,” in Universidades espanolas y americanas. Epoca colonial, foreword by Peset, Mariano (Valencia: CSIC, 1987).Google Scholar
Torlais, Jean, “La physique expérimentale,” in Taton, René (ed.), Enseignement et diffusion des sciences au dix-huitième siècle (Paris: Hermann, 1963)Google Scholar
Torlais, Jean, L’Abbé Nollet: un physicien au siècle des lumières (Paris: Societé des journeaux et publications du Centre, 1954)Google Scholar
Turner, R. Steven, “University Reformers and Professorial Scholarship in Germany, 1760–1806,” in Stone, Lawrence (ed.), The University in Society, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974).Google Scholar
Turner, R. Steven, “The Growth of Professorial Research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848,” Historical Studies in the Sciences, 3 (1971)Google Scholar
Ultee, Maarten, “The Politics of Professorial Appointment at Leiden, 1709,” History of Universities, 9 (1990)Google Scholar
Underwood, Edgar A., “The Early Teaching of Anatomy at Padua with Special Reference to a Model of the Paduan Anatomy Theatre,” Annals of Science, 19 (1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaccari, P., Storia dell’ università di Pavia (Pavia: Università di Pavia, 1957)Google Scholar
Valla, Joseph, Institutiones philosophicae … ad usum scholarum, 6 vols. (Lyons: Perisse, 1780), vol. 4.Google Scholar
Vanpaemel, Geert, Echo’s van een wetenschappelijke revolutie. De mechanistische natuurwetenschap aan de Leuvense Artesfaculteit, 1650–1797 (Verhandelingen van de koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren, en Schone Kunsten van België, Klasse der Wetenschappen, 173; Brussels: Paleis der Academiën, 1986)Google Scholar
Vanpaemel, Geert, “Rohault’s Traité de physique and the Teaching of Cartesian Physics,” Janus, 71 (1984)Google Scholar
Vossler, Otto, “Humboldts Idee der Universität,” Historisches Zeitung, 178 (1954)Google Scholar
Williams, Elizabeth A., The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750–1850 (Cambridge University Press, 1994).Google Scholar
Winstanley, Denys A., Unreformed Cambridge: A Study of Certain Aspects of Eighteenth-Century Cambridge (Cambridge University Press, 1953)Google Scholar
Wood, Paul B., The Aberdeen Enlightenment: The Arts Curriculum in the Eighteenth Century (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1993)Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×