Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:23:26.532Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - The Evolutionary Basis of Political Ideology

from Part I - Foundations of Political Psychology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2022

By
Scott Claessens ,
Ananish Chaudhuri ,
Chris G. Sibley  and
Quentin D. Atkinson
Edited by
Danny Osborne  and
Chris G. Sibley
Danny Osborne
Affiliation:
University of Auckland
Chris G. Sibley
Affiliation:
University of Auckland
Get access

Summary

This chapter aims to synthesise recent research studying political ideology from an evolutionary perspective. We begin by outlining how evolutionary theory can be applied to human psychology. We then review recent lines of evolutionary research linking variation in political ideology to physical formidability, the behavioural immune system, threat sensitivity, and evolved moral foundations. We synthesise this research with a novel framework of political differences inspired by recent independent, convergent evidence for two key shifts in the evolution of human group living. This evolutionary framework explains economic and social conservatism as emerging from two fundamental human social drives: cooperation and group conformity. We conclude with some remaining questions and future directions for evolutionary approaches to political ideology.

Keywords

EvolutionPolitical ideologySocial dominance orientationRight-wing authoritarianismCooperationGroup conformity
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Political Psychology , pp. 22 - 36
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aktipis, A., Cronk, L., Alcock, J., et al. (2018). Understanding cooperation through fitness interdependence. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(7), 429–431. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562–018-0378-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alford, J. R., Funk, C. L., & Hibbing, J. R. (2005). Are political orientations genetically transmitted? American Political Science Review, 99(2), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055405051579Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Jost, J. T., Master, S. L., & Yee, C. M. (2007). Neurocognitive correlates of liberalism and conservatism. Nature Neuroscience, 10(10), 1246–1247. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1979Google Scholar
Ashton, M. C., Danso, H. A., Maio, G. R., Esses, V. M., Bond, M. H., & Keung, D. K. Y. (2005). Two dimensions of political attitudes and their individual difference correlates: A cross-cultural perspective. In Sorrentino, R. M., Cohen, D., Olsen, J. M., & Zanna, M. P. (Eds.), Culture and social behavior: The Ontario symposium (pp. 1–29). (Ontario Symposia on Personality and Social Psychology Series; Vol. 10). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612793Google Scholar
Bakker, B. N., Schumacher, G., Gothreau, C., & Arceneaux, K. (2020). Conservatives and liberals have similar physiological responses to threats. Nature Human Behaviour, 4, Article 823. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0823-zGoogle Scholar
Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1992). The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bas-Hoogendam, J. M., Steenbergen, H. V., Kreuk, T., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Westenberg, P. M. (2017). How embarrassing! The behavioral and neural correlates of processing social norm violations. PLoS ONE, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176326CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Batrićević, N., & Littvay, L. (2017). A genetic basis of economic egalitarianism. Social Justice Research, 30(4), 408–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211–017-0297-yGoogle Scholar
Bernhard, H., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2006). Parochial altruism in humans. Nature, 442(7105), 912–915. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04981Google Scholar
Block, J., & Block, J. H. (2006). Nursery school personality and political orientation two decades later. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 734–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.09.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehm, C. (1993). Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy. Current Anthropology, 34(3), 227–254. https://doi.org/10.1086/204166Google Scholar
Borg, J. S., Lieberman, D., & Kiehl, K. A. (2008). Infection, incest, and iniquity: Investigating the neural correlates of disgust and morality. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(9), 1529–1546. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.20109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, M. J., Reyna, C., Chambers, J. R., Crawford, J. T., & Wetherell, G. (2014). The ideological-conflict hypothesis: Intolerance among both liberals and conservatives. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413510932Google Scholar
Bromham, L., Hua, X., Cardillo, M., Schneemann, H., & Greenhill, S. J. (2018). Parasites and politics: Why cross-cultural studies must control for relatedness, proximity and covariation. Royal Society Open Science, 5(8). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.181100Google Scholar
Brown, D. E. (1991). Human universals. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Burkart, J. M., Brügger, R. K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2018). Evolutionary origins of morality: Insights from non-human primates. Frontiers in Sociology, 3, Article 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2018.00017Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2009). How can evolutionary psychology successfully explain personality and individual differences? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(4), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01138.xGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. E. (1960). The American voter. Wiley.Google Scholar
Cesarini, D., Dawes, C. T., Fowler, J. H., Johannesson, M., Lichtenstein, P., & Wallace, B. (2008). Heritability of cooperative behavior in the trust game. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(10), 3721–3726. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0710069105Google Scholar
Claessens, S., Fischer, K., Chaudhuri, A., Sibley, C. G., & Atkinson, Q. D. (2020). The dual evolutionary foundations of political ideology. Nature Human Behaviour, 4, 336–345. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562–020-0850-9Google Scholar
Claidière, N., & Whiten, A. (2012). Integrating the study of conformity and culture in humans and nonhuman animals. Psychological Bulletin, 138(1), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025868CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conway, L. G., Chan, L., & Woodard, S. R. (2020). Socio-ecological influences on political ideology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.034Google Scholar
Cronk, L., & Leech, B. L. (2013). Meeting at Grand Central: Understanding the social and evolutionary roots of cooperation. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859). The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. John Murray.Google Scholar
Dawes, C. T., Loewen, P. J., Schreiber, D., et al. (2012). Neural basis of egalitarian behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(17), 6479–6483. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118653109Google Scholar
Decety, J., Jackson, P. L., Sommerville, J. A., Chaminade, T., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2004). The neural bases of cooperation and competition: An fMRI investigation. NeuroImage, 23(2), 744–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delton, A. W., & Robertson, T. E. (2016). How the mind makes welfare tradeoffs: Evolution, computation, and emotion. Current Opinion in Psychology, 7, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.06.006Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1995). Darwin’s dangerous idea: Evolution and the meanings of life. Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (1982). Chimpanzee politics: Power and sex among apes. Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2009). A dual-process motivational model of ideology, politics, and prejudice. Psychological Inquiry, 20(2–3), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028540CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federico, C. M., Weber, C. R., Ergun, D., & Hunt, C. (2013). Mapping the connections between politics and morality: The multiple sociopolitical orientations involved in moral intuition. Political Psychology, 34(4), 589–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12006Google Scholar
Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2004). Third-party punishment and social norms. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25(2), 63–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090–5138(04)00005-4Google Scholar
Fincher, C. L., & Thornhill, R. (2012). Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(2), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11000021Google Scholar
Fodor, E. M., Wick, D. P., Hartsen, K. M., & Preve, R. M. (2008). Right-wing authoritarianism in relation to proposed judicial action, electromyographic response, and affective attitudes toward a schizophrenic mother. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(1), 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00303.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foerster, S., Franz, M., Murray, C. M., et al. (2016). Chimpanzee females queue but males compete for social status. Scientific Reports, 6, Article 35404. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35404Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., et al. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332(6033), 1100–1104. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1197754Google Scholar
Geniole, S. N., MacDonell, E. T., & McCormick, C. M. (2017). The threat premium in economic bargaining. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38(5), 572–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.12.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilby, I. C. (2006). Meat sharing among the Gombe chimpanzees: Harassment and reciprocal exchange. Animal Behaviour, 71(4), 953–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.09.009Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1982). Order without law. In Gruter, M. & Bohannan, P. (Eds.), Law, biology and culture: The evolution of law (pp. 50–62). Ross-Erikson, Publishers, Inc.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141Google Scholar
Griskevicius, V., Goldstein, N. J., Mortensen, C. R., Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006). Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non)conformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.281Google Scholar
Grünhage, T., & Reuter, M. (2020). Political orientation is associated with behavior in public-goods- and trust-games. Political Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109–020-09606-5Google Scholar
Gurven, M. (2004). Reciprocal altruism and food sharing decisions among Hiwi and Ache hunter-gatherers. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 56(4), 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265–004-0793-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gurven, M., Rueden, C. von, Massenkoff, M., Kaplan, H., & Vie, M. L. (2013). How universal is the big five? Testing the five-factor model of personality variation among forager-farmers in the Bolivian Amazon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 354–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030841Google Scholar
Haesevoets, T., Folmer, C. R., & Van Hiel, A. (2015). Cooperation in mixed-motive games: The role of individual differences in selfish and social orientation. European Journal of Personality, 29(4), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1992Google Scholar
Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Halali, E., Dorfman, A., Jun, S., & Halevy, N. (2018). More for us or more for me? Social dominance as parochial egoism. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(2), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617732819Google Scholar
Hamann, K., Warneken, F., Greenberg, J. R., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Collaboration encourages equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees. Nature, 476(7360), 328–331. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10278Google Scholar
Haselton, M. G., & Nettle, D. (2006). The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(1), 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1001\_3Google Scholar
Hatemi, P. K., Byrne, E., & McDermott, R. (2012). Introduction: What is a ‘gene’ and why does it matter for political science? Journal of Theoretical Politics, 24(3), 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629812437752CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haun, D. B. M., Rekers, Y., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Majority-biased transmission in chimpanzees and human children, but not orangutans. Current Biology, 22(8), 727–731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. (2015). The secret of our success: How culture is driving human evolution, domesticating our species, and making us smarter. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.195747Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152XGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., & McElreath, R. (2003). The evolution of cultural evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 12(3), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.10110Google Scholar
Hibbing, J. R., Smith, K. B., & Alford, J. R. (2013). Predisposed: Liberals, conservatives, and the biology of political differences. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203112137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbing, J. R., Smith, K. B., & Alford, J. R. (2014). Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 37(3), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X13001192Google Scholar
Hodson, G., Choma, B. L., Boisvert, J., Hafer, C. L., MacInnis, C. C., & Costello, K. (2013). The role of intergroup disgust in predicting negative outgroup evaluations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodson, G., & Costello, K. (2007). Interpersonal disgust, ideological orientations, and dehumanization as predictors of intergroup attitudes. Psychological Science, 18(8), 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01962.xGoogle Scholar
Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D. A., & Bloom, P. (2009). Conservatives are more easily disgusted than liberals. Cognition and Emotion, 23(4), 714–725. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802110007Google Scholar
Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D., Iyer, R., & Haidt, J. (2012). Disgust sensitivity, political conservatism, and voting. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(5), 537–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611429024Google Scholar
Jensen, K., Vaish, A., & Schmidt, M. F. H. (2014). The emergence of human prosociality: Aligning with others through feelings, concerns, and norms. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 822. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00822Google Scholar
Jost, J. T. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist, 61(7), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Federico, C. M., & Napier, J. L. (2009). Political ideology: Its structure, functions, and elective affinities. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 307–337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J. T., Pelham, B. W., Sheldon, O., & Ni Sullivan, B. (2003). Social inequality and the reduction of ideological dissonance on behalf of the system: Evidence of enhanced system justification among the disadvantaged. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 13–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.127Google Scholar
Kanai, R., Feilden, T., Firth, C., & Rees, G. (2011). Political orientations are correlated with brain structure in young adults. Current Biology, 21(8), 677–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.017Google Scholar
Kinzler, K. D., Dupoux, E., & Spelke, E. S. (2007). The native language of social cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(30), 12577–12580. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0705345104Google Scholar
Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., Dejesus, J., & Spelke, E. S. (2009). Accent trumps race in guiding children’s social preferences. Social Cognition, 27(4), 623–634. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2009.27.4.623CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koomen, R., & Herrmann, E. (2018). An investigation of children’s strategies for overcoming the tragedy of the commons. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(5), 348–355. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562–018-0327-2Google Scholar
Lewis, G. J., & Bates, T. C. (2017). The temporal stability of in-group favoritism is mostly attributable to genetic factors. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(8), 897–903. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617699250Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2006a). Chimpanzees recruit the best collaborators. Science, 311(5765), 1297–1300. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1123007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melis, A. P., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2006b). Engineering cooperation in chimpanzees: Tolerance constraints on cooperation. Animal Behaviour, 72(2), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.09.018Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Chimpanzees coordinate in a negotiation game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30(6), 381–392. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.05.003Google Scholar
Morgan, T. J. H., Rendell, L. E., Ehn, M., Hoppitt, W., & Laland, K. N. (2011). The evolutionary basis of human social learning. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279(1729), 653–662. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1172Google Scholar
Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M. (2012). Threat(s) and conformity deconstructed: Perceived threat of infectious disease and its implications for conformist attitudes and behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(2), 180–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.863Google Scholar
Navarrete, C. D., & Fessler, D. M. (2006). Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: The effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(4), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.12.001Google Scholar
Nettle, D. (2006). The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. American Psychologist, 61(6), 622–631. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.6.622Google Scholar
Norenzayan, A., Shariff, A. F., Gervais, W. M., et al. (2016). The cultural evolution of prosocial religions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14001356Google Scholar
Nowak, M. A. (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science, 314(5805), 1560–1563. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133755Google Scholar
Oxley, D. R., Smith, K. B., Alford, J. R., et al. (2008). Political attitudes vary with physiological traits. Science, 321(5896), 1667–1670. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1157627CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepper, G. V., & Nettle, D. (2017). The behavioural constellation of deprivation: Causes and consequences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 40, e314. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X1600234XGoogle Scholar
Petersen, M. B. (2015). Evolutionary political psychology. In Buss, D. M. (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 1–19). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939376Google Scholar
Petersen, M. B., & Laustsen, L. (2019). Upper-body strength and political egalitarianism: Twelve conceptual replications. Political Psychology, 40(2), 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12505Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. (2014). Political polarization in the American public. https://www.people-press.org/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-american-public/Google Scholar
Pollet, T. V., Tybur, J. M., Frankenhuis, W. E., & Rickard, I. J. (2014). What can cross-cultural correlations teach us about human nature? Human Nature, 25(3), 410–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110–014-9206-3Google Scholar
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741Google Scholar
Price, M. E., Kang, J., Dunn, J., & Hopkins, S. (2011). Muscularity and attractiveness as predictors of human egalitarianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 636–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, M. E., Sheehy-Skeffington, J., Sidnaius, J., & Pound, N. (2017). Is sociopolitical egalitarianism related to bodily and facial formidability in men? Evolution and Human Behavior, 38(5), 626–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.04.001Google Scholar
Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2008). The sources of normativity: Young children’s awareness of the normative structure of games. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 875–881. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.875Google Scholar
Richerson, P., Baldini, R., Bell, A. V., et al. (2016). Cultural group selection plays an essential role in explaining human cooperation: A sketch of the evidence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39, e30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X1400106XGoogle Scholar
Richerson, P., & Boyd, R. (2005). Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human evolution. The University of Chicago Press. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/547797Google Scholar
Riedl, K., Jensen, K., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2012). No third-party punishment in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(37), 14824–14829. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1203179109Google Scholar
Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2011). The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402596Google Scholar
Schulman, G. I. (1967). Asch conformity studies: Conformity to the experimenter and/or to the group? Sociometry, 30(1), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786436Google Scholar
Scott, J., & Lockard, J. S. (2007). Competition coalitions and conflict interventions among captive female gorillas. International Journal of Primatology, 28(4), 761–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764–007-9161-5Google Scholar
Scott-Phillips, T. C., Dickins, T. E., & West, S. A. (2011). Evolutionary theory and the ultimate-proximate distinction in the human behavioral sciences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393528Google Scholar
Service, E. R. (1962). Primitive social organization: An evolutionary perspective. Random House.Google Scholar
Silk, J. B., Brosnan, S. F., Vonk, J., et al. (2005). Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members. Nature, 437(7063), 1357–1359. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04243Google Scholar
Sinn, J. S., & Hayes, M. W. (2017). Replacing the moral foundations: An evolutionary-coalitional theory of liberal-conservative differences. Political Psychology, 38(6), 1043–1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12361Google Scholar
Snell-Rood, E. C. (2013). An overview of the evolutionary causes and consequences of behavioural plasticity. Animal Behaviour, 85(5), 1004–1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.12.031Google Scholar
Sng, O., Neuberg, S. L., Varnum, M. E. W., & Kenrick, D. T. (2018). The behavioral ecology of cultural psychological variation. Psychological Review, 125(5), 714–743. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000104Google Scholar
Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos: Empirical evidence and shifting assumptions. Current Anthropology, 39(4), 399–420. https://doi.org/10.1086/204757Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2007). Social intelligence, human intelligence and niche construction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1480), 719–730. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.2006Google Scholar
Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & McDaniel, M. A. (2013). The behavioral immune system and social conservatism: A meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.10.003Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20(4), 410–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.xGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M., Melis, A. P., Tennie, C., Wyman, E., & Herrmann, E. (2012). Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation: The interdependence hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 53(6), 673–692. https://doi.org/10.1086/668207Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., & Vaish, A. (2013). Origins of human cooperation and morality. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 231–255. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143812Google Scholar
Tybur, J. M., Inbar, Y., Aarøe, L., et al. (2016). Parasite stress and pathogen avoidance relate to distinct dimensions of political ideology across 30 nations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(44), 12408–12413. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607398113Google Scholar
Tybur, J. M., Merriman, L. A., Hooper, A. E. C., McDonald, M. M., & Navarrete, C. D. (2010). Extending the behavioral immune system to political psychology: Are political conservatism and disgust sensitivity really related? Evolutionary Psychology, 8(4), 599–616. https://doi.org/epjournal-1329 [pii]Google Scholar
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Young children’s responses to guilt displays. Developmental Psychology, 47(5), 1248–1262. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024462Google Scholar
Van Schaik, C. P., Ancrenaz, M., Borgen, G., et al. (2003). Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science, 299(5603), 102–105. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078004Google Scholar
Van Wilgenburg, E., Torres, C. W., & Tsutsui, N. D. (2010). The global expansion of a single ant supercolony. Evolutionary Applications, 3(2), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2009.00114.xGoogle Scholar
Wallace, B., Cesarini, D., Lichtenstein, P., & Johannesson, M. (2007). Heritability of ultimatum game responder behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(40), 15631–15634. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706642104Google Scholar
Warneken, F., Chen, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Cooperative activities in young children and chimpanzees. Child Development, 77(3), 640–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00895.xGoogle Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1121448Google Scholar
Weeden, J., & Kurzban, R. (2014). The hidden agenda of the political mind: How self-interest shapes our opinions and why we won’t admit it. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400851966Google Scholar
Westermarck, E. (1891). The history of human marriage. Macmillan & Co.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Spiteri, A., Horner, V., et al. (2007). Transmission of multiple traditions within and between chimpanzee groups. Current Biology, 17(12), 1038–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.031Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×