The Endangered giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is rare and elusive across its Central African range. Because of its solitary and nocturnal nature, the species is difficult to study and so its ecology is little known. Pangolins are considered the most trafficked mammals in the world. Therefore, confirming presence accurately and monitoring trends in distribution and abundance are essential to inform and prioritize conservation efforts. Camera traps are popular tools for surveying rare and cryptic species. However, non-targeted camera-trap surveys yield low camera-trapping rates for pangolins. Here we use camera-trap data from surveys conducted within three protected areas in Uganda to test whether targeted placement of cameras improves giant pangolin detection probability in occupancy models. The results indicate that giant pangolin detection probability is highest when camera traps are targeted on burrows. The median number of days from camera deployment to first giant pangolin detection event was 12, with the majority of events captured within 32 days from deployment. The median interval between giant pangolin events at a camera-trap site was 33 days. We demonstrate that camera-trap surveys can be designed to improve the detection of giant pangolins and we outline a set of recommendations to maximize the effectiveness of efforts to survey and monitor the species.

Although snake populations are suffering numerous local declines, determining the scale of these declines is problematic due to the elusive nature of snakes. Determining the factors associated with species detection is therefore essential for quantifying disturbance effects on populations. From 2017 to 2019, we assessed the detectability associations of five river-associated snake species and all snake detections in general within two logging concessions in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Data collected from both stream transects and visual encounter surveys at 47 stream sites were incorporated into an occupancy-modelling framework to determine the climatological, temporal and survey distance associations with species detection probability. Detection probability of riparian snake species was significantly associated with humidity, month (2 spp. each), survey distance and total rainfall over 60 days (1 spp. each). Pooled snake species detectability was significantly positively associated with transect distance and the 2019 El-Niño year, whilst yearly pooled snake species detections in stream transects spiked during El-Niño (2017 = 2.05, 2018 = 2.47, 2019 = 4.5 snakes per km). This study provides new insights into the detectability of riparian rainforest snakes and suggests that future studies should account for short-term (climatological and temporal) and long-term (El-Niño) factors associated with detection probability when surveying and assessing snake populations.

Many studies of wildlife poaching acknowledge the challenges of detecting poaching activities, but few address the issue. Data on poaching may be an inaccurate reflection of the true spatial distribution of events because of low detection rates. The deployment of conservation and law enforcement resources based on biased data could be ineffective or lead to unintended outcomes. Here, we present a rigorous method for estimating the probabilities of detecting poaching and for evaluating different patrol strategies. We illustrate the method with a case study in which imitation snares were set in a private nature reserve in South Africa. By using an experimental design with a known spatial distribution of imitation snares, we estimated the detection probability of the current patrol strategy used in the reserve and compared it to three alternative patrol strategies: spatially focused patrols, patrols with independent observers, and systematic search patterns. Although detection probabilities were generally low, the highest proportion of imitation snares was detected with systematic search strategies. Our study provides baseline data on the probability of detecting snares used for poaching, and presents a method that can be modified for use in other regions and for other types of wildlife poaching.

We report on the first population found in Tanzania of the Vulnerable African golden cat Caracal aurata, extending its documented range c. 200 km to the south and south-east. This is one of the least-known and truly forest-dependent felines in Africa, ranging across the Guinea–Congolian forest block. We recorded the new population in Minziro Nature Forest Reserve, north-west Tanzania, during a 3-month survey in 2018. We deployed 70 camera traps on a regular grid and obtained 33 detection events of the golden cat at 26% of sites, with a minimum of 10 individuals across 257 km2. We estimated occupancy and detection probability and modelled these in relation to the distance of sampling sites to the forest edge, which coincides with both the Reserve boundary and proximity to human settlements surrounding the Reserve. Mean estimated occupancy was 0.41 ± SE 0.12 (mean detectability = 0.13 ± SE 0.05), with occupancy increasing significantly with distance from the forest edge. Detectability did not vary significantly with distance from the forest edge, but was higher for camera models that had a shorter trigger time. Our findings add to the scant data available for this species. It appears threatened by human activity, which we recorded both outside and within the Reserve, and the presence of the species indicates Minziro Forest is an important site for its conservation.

Burrow-nesting seabirds constitute an important part of seabird diversity, yet accurate estimates of their abundance are largely lacking, limiting our understanding of their population dynamics and conservation status. We conducted a survey to estimate the number of South Georgia diving petrel (Pelecanoides georgicus) burrows during the 2013–14 breeding season on Ile de la Possession, Crozet archipelago, southern Indian Ocean. We used distance sampling and acoustic playback in order to estimate burrow densities in a priori-selected favourable nesting areas. A total of 855 burrows were detected. The mean altitude of burrows was 601.8 ± 69.4 m. The mean burrow detection distance was 1.77 ± 1.63 m. The burrow density was estimated at 15.649 burrows ha-1 (95% confidence interval (CI): 10.245–23.903) and the slope-corrected total favourable area was 2365.53 ha, which yielded an estimate 37 018 burrows (95% CI: 24 235–56 544). The playback response rate was 15.8 ± 1.3%, and 40.8 ± 1.7% of burrows were occupied or showed signs of occupation. Occupancy rates were low compared to those measured by systematic burrow inspection in other studies. Assuming that laying occurred in 80–93% of the estimated number of burrows, as estimated by previous studies, gives an estimate of 29 614 (95% CI: 19 388–45 235) to 34 426 (95% CI: 22 538–52 585) breeding pairs.

The Micro-Nano satellite TianTuo-3 (TT-3) developed by the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) was successfully launched on 20 September 2015. The space-based Automatic Identification System (AIS) on board TT-3 works well and stably receives AIS signals from global vessels. In this work, we perform statistical analysis on the detection probability of the vessels in the concerned areas by using the TT-3 AIS data. The results suggest that the detection probability of vessels decreases as the distribution density increases, especially in the offshore areas of dense traffic and the TT3-AIS vessel detection probability in the oceans can be higher than 40%, indicating that the TT-3 AIS has achieved a high probability of coverage of vessels for a single receiving antenna. The analysis results will present helpful references both in evaluating the potential application of satellite-based AIS and for designing the next generation space-based AIS which might greatly improve the detection probability of ocean-going vessels.

The unprecedented political and economic reforms taking place in Myanmar offer new opportunities for biodiversity conservation. They also bring new challenges in the form of rapidly growing extractive industry and agriculture sectors that have been weakly regulated and are often unsustainable. The Endangered hog deer Axis porcinus epitomizes many of these conservation challenges, and those facing most deer species in the Indo–Burma hotspot. The hog deer has disappeared from large parts of its range as a result of overhunting and intense conversion of its floodplain grassland habitat for agriculture. We report on a population of hog deer that was discovered in the Indawgyi landscape in central Myanmar in 2012. We conducted the first rigorous assessment of a hog deer population in Myanmar using an occupancy sampling protocol, tested the protocol's robustness using a power analysis, and present the results to guide management intervention. The results from our study site revealed widespread occurrence of the species, with high precision. The population map was then used to inform the development of a conservation management zone within a UNESCO Man and Biosphere Reserve around Indawgyi Lake. The importance of this population for the status of the hog deer in Myanmar remains unknown because documentation of the species has been sparse. Our survey protocol could make a significant contribution to addressing this knowledge gap and setting an informed agenda for conservation of the hog deer both nationally and more widely across the Indo-Burma hotspot.

There is a need for simple and robust techniques for assessment and monitoring of populations of the Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia to inform the development of action plans for snow leopard conservation. We explored the use of occupancy modelling to evaluate the influence of environmental and anthropogenic features on snow leopard site-use patterns. We conducted a camera trap survey across 480 km2 in Gansu Province, China, and used data from 60 camera traps to estimate probabilities of site use and detection using the single season occupancy model. We assessed the influence of three covariates on site use by snow leopards: elevation, the presence of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and the presence of human disturbance (distance to roads). We recorded 76 captures of snow leopards over 2,906 trap-days, representing a mean capture success of 2.62 captures per 100 trap-days. Elevation had the strongest influence on site use, with the probability of site use increasing with altitude, whereas the influence of presence of prey and distance to roads was relatively weak. Our findings indicate the need for practical and robust techniques to appraise determinants of site use by snow leopards, especially in the context of the limited resources available for such work.

Detecting time-varying target in non-stationary background is difficult and attractive problem. Time-varying movement exists widely in radar and communication systems. The non-linear processing with higher moments is discussed in the situation. Firstly the signal model of time-varying target with fix acceleration is analyzed. Then the radar echoes from synthetic aperture radar (SAR) are processed with higher moments. It not only restrains Gaussian noise automatically, but also suppresses non-stationary noise. Time-varying targets are different from the non-stationary background clutters. Moreover, the influences of the shadows about time-varying targets are reduced in the algorithm of higher moments. The proposal mentioned above utilizes higher moments to avoid analyzing the complex electromagnetic wave propagation and scatter theory. The differences of detection probability are compared between the chip with time-varying target and the clutter chip. The performances among different number order moments are compared by processing lots of actual SAR data added non-stationary noise. Lastly, the suitable number order moments are suggested by comparing the results from processing the actual radar echoes.

Observer-based studies often underestimate key ecological parameters. Here a fresh approach was used to analyse six years (2006–11) of attendance cycles to estimate foraging trip lengths of a lactating flipper-tagged otariid: subantarctic fur seals at Marion Island. Multi-state mark-recapture models were used to calculate detection failures of females, correct estimates accordingly, and investigate the effects of year, season, pup sex and the presence of a telemetry device on attendance cycle parameters. There were no differences between corrected and uncorrected attendance data. This is attributed to the high capture probability across all seasons (range: 83–98%). This illustrates that observer-based studies are useful to augment telemetry studies. Only season and pup sex had a significant impact on female provisioning rates. In winter, foraging trip durations were longer (t-value=25.22, P<0.0001) and attendance durations shorter (t-value=-2.15, P=0.01) than during summer. Females with female pups spent a higher proportion of their time on land (χ2=6.6, P<0.05). Male pups have higher growth demands and are larger which suggests they can deplete female milk-stores faster.

We investigate a strategy to address the problem of low ship detection probability of space-based Automatic Identification System (AIS). A directional AIS antenna and an innovative beam scanning method are proposed, which scan the antenna across a wide swath to provide complete coverage and maintain the advantage of a narrow footprint to reduce signal collision. Aiming at the mission requirement of global ship detection by the year 2016, the appropriate swath, the scanning range and the scanning rate were studied and designed in detail. Theoretical analysis and simulations showed that this scanning antenna can greatly improve ship detection probability and hold the detection probability at an average reporting interval from six to 15 seconds for most oceans when compared with the traditional fixed wide beam antenna. Furthermore, the detection capacity of this scanning antenna was little affected by the heights of different Low Earth Orbits. The results of this work show that the design of the helical antenna along with the beam scanning method can be considered as a building block of future space-based AIS.

Nominally protected areas in Papua are under threat from encroachment, logging and hunting. The northern cassowary Casuarius unappendiculatus is the largest frugivore of the lowland rainforest of New Guinea and is endemic to this region, and therefore it is an important conservation target and a potential flagship species. We investigated effects of habitat degradation on the species by means of distance sampling surveys of 58 line transects across five distinct habitats, from primary forest to forest gardens. Estimated cassowary densities ranged from 14.1 (95% CI 9.2–21.4) birds km−2 in primary forest to 1.4 (95% CI 0.4–5.6) birds km−2 in forest garden. Density estimates were intermediate in unlogged but hunted natural forest and in > 30 year-old secondary forest, and considerably lower in recently logged (< 3 years) forest. Cassowary abundance was positively correlated with canopy cover and with tree height and diameter, and negatively correlated with hunting traps and human trails. In generalized linear models cassowary abundance was best explained by the number of fruiting trees and potential water sources. The results suggest that although the northern cassowary is moderately tolerant of intermediate disturbance it is relatively intolerant of heavy disturbance such as intensive logging. To secure the populations of northern cassowary and of other large animal species in Papua, forest degradation needs to be addressed by enforcing regulations in existing protection forest and/or establishing new protected areas, such as wildlife reserves.

Protected areas in developing tropical countries are under pressure from local demand for resources, and therefore it is essential to monitor rare species and prevent overexploitation of resources. The Travancore tortoise Indotestudo travancorica is endemic to the Western Ghats in southern India, where it inhabits deciduous and evergreen forests. We used multiple-season models to estimate site occupancy and detection probability for the tortoise in two protected areas, and investigated factors influencing this. During 2006–2009 we surveyed 25 trails in four forest types and estimated that the tortoise occupied 41–97% of the habitat. Tortoise presence on the trails was confirmed by sightings of 39 tortoises and 61 instances of indirect evidence of tortoises. There was considerable interannual variation in both direct and indirect evidence of tortoise presence. Although grass marshes represented only a small fraction of the protected areas, they constituted an important foraging ground for the tortoise and should be a focal point for monitoring and protection measures. Human-inhabited enclaves within the protected areas, and consequent furtive hunting, had a negative effect on occupancy by the tortoise, and therefore protected area management should include educating local communities and involving them in monitoring and protecting the species.

We conducted surveys for the Endangered Sierra Madre yellow-legged frog Rana muscosa throughout southern California to evaluate the current distribution and status of the species. Surveys were conducted during 2000–2009 at 150 unique streams and lakes within the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, and Palomar mountains of southern California. Only nine small, geographically isolated populations were detected across the four mountain ranges, and all tested positive for the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Our data show that when R. muscosa is known to be present it is easily detectable (89%) in a single visit during the frog's active season. We estimate that only 166 adult frogs remained in the wild in 2009. Our research indicates that R. muscosa populations in southern California are threatened by natural and stochastic events and may become extirpated in the near future unless there is some intervention to save them.

The presence and density of two sympatric, large-sized vipers (the Gaboon viper, Bitis gabonica and the nose-horned viper, Bitis nasicornis) were studied along several transects, during both dry and wet seasons, and at different times of day, in southern Nigeria (West Africa). Three habitat types were found along the various transects (mature rain forest (MF), secondary rain forest (SF), swamp forest (SW)). The detection probabilities for these vipers were modelled with a set of competing models, and the various models were ordered by Akaike Information Criterion procedures. Two classes of models were used: the single-season model, and the multi-species model. The best models (single-season model) suggested that: for the Gaboon viper, habitat types SF and SW were particularly important in detecting this species, especially during the rainy season at 08h00–16h00. For nose-horned vipers, the best models had SW and MF as site-covariates. Application of the multi-species model revealed that there were different detection functions if both species are present at a site, with a ‘negative’ interaction of occupancy between the species. Females and males were similarly detectable in a logistic regression model, but feeding status and pregnancy slightly increased detection probability in a logistic regression model. Viper density was modelled by a DISTANCE sampling procedure. The density of one species tended to be inversely correlated to the density of the other, suggesting that (1) the rain-forest environment does not support abundant populations of both vipers when sympatric, and (2) the two Bitis species subtly partition the habitat resources.

When measuring the flux of migrating salmon in rivers there are often multiple fish in the beam simultaneously. To obtain accurate measurements of flux, an understanding of the effects of multiple targets is required. Multiple targets in various configurations were passed through a horizontally-oriented 4° × 10° beam from a split-beam echo sounder. The effects on target strength, detection probability, spatial and temporal patterns of echoes, and measurement of target position are presented. When multiple targets were in the beam at the same range, the target strength was positively biased, whereas, when they were in-line at different ranges, the target strength and detection probability were negatively biased for the shadowed targets. Targets at the same range, but separated in the vertical or horizontal direction, produced characteristic patterns in the X vs. ping and Y vs. X plots. Similar patterns were found in routine observations of migrating salmon, allowing the identification of some multiple-target events. Identification of these events can aid in the correct interpretation of migrating fish data for flux measurement.

Additional theory important in the design and evaluation of a periodic screening program is presented. The distributions of doubly bounded preclinical state forward and backward recurrence times of the stochastic screening model are derived. Properties of these distributions are used to obtain an expression for estimating the mean lead time gained by screening, an alternative theoretical expression for the mean lead time and an equation for calculating an estimate of the probability of detecting preclinical disease.