Prior to the separation of merozoites from the Plasmodium falciparum schizont, various stage-specific organelles are synthesized and assembled within each merozoite bud. The apical ends of the merozoites are initiated close to the ends of endomitotic spindles. At each of these sites, the nuclear membrane forms coated vesicles, and a single discoidal or cup- like Golgi cisterna appears. Reconstruction from serial sections indicates that this structure receives vesicles from the nuclear envelope and in turn gives off coated vesicles to generate the apical secretory organelles. Rhoptries first form as spheroidal structures and grow by progressive fusion of small vesicles around their margins. As each rhoptry develops, 2 distinctive regions separate within it, an apical reticular zone with electron-lucent areas separated by cords of granular material, and a more homogenously granular basal region. The apical part elongates into the duct, with evidence for further vesicular fusion at the duct apex. The rounded rhoptry base becomes progressively more densely packed to form a spheroidal mass, and compaction also occurs in the duct. Typically, one rhoptry matures before the other. Cryofractured rhoptry membranes show asymmetry in the sizes and numbers of intramembranous particles at the internally- and externally-directed fracture faces.

Mucus is a sticky visco-elastic material which coats all mucosal surfaces. Florey, in 1955, noted the following three functions for gastrointestinal mucus: protection of the underlying mucosa from chemical and physical injury, lubrication of the mucosal surface to facilitate passage of luminal contents, and removal of parasites by binding and entrapment. In the 31 years since Florey's review, detailed analyses of the composition of mucus and of the biochemistry of mucin glycoproteins, as well as measurements of the physical properties of mucus from different organs and sites have yielded information at the molecular level which provide additional support for his views on its function (Allen, 1981; Forstner, Wesley & Forstner, 1982).

Studies of patterns of reinfection with four species of intestinal nematodes (Ascaris, hookworm, Trichuris and Enterobius) in 174 individual patients following chemotherapeutic treatment revealed statistical evidence for predisposition to heavy or light infection (relative to the average level in the overall population). Analyses of associations between the abundances of the four species of nematodes within a combined sample of 525 worm burdens showed significant correlations between 5 out of the 6 possible pair-wise comparisons between species. The relevance of these results to the design of control programmes based on chemotherapeutic application is discussed.

Polymerase chain reaction–ribosomal ITS-1 DNA (rDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR–RFLP) analysis and sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) and NADH dehydrogenase 1 (ND1) genes were used to characterize 33 Echinococcus granulosus isolates collected from different regions and hosts in Argentina, and to determine which genotypes occurred in humans with cystic hydatid disease. The results of the study demonstrated the presence of at least 4 distinct genotypes; the common sheep strain (G1) in sheep from Chubut Province and in humans from Río Negro Province, the Tasmanian sheep strain (G2) in sheep and 1 human from Tucumán Province, the pig strain (G7) in pigs from Santa Fe Province and the camel strain (G6) in humans from Río Negro and Buenos Aires Provinces. The finding that pigs harboured the pig strain and the occurrence of the Tasmanian sheep strain has considerable implications for the implementation of hydatid control programmes due to the shorter maturation time of both strains in dogs compared with the common sheep strain. Furthermore, this is the first report of the presence of the G2 and G6 genotypes in humans which may also have important consequences for human health.

The value of 2 PCR methods, targeting genomic and kinetoplast minicircle DNA respectively, was investigated for both diagnosis and prevalence studies of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL). The first method (R) was 5000-fold less sensitive than the second (method KRV). Both were tested for diagnosis of CVL in 44 sick dogs with confirmed disease using different biological samples. Method R was highly efficient when using invasive samples, but the use of method KRV proved necessary for a 100% sensitive diagnosis using peripheral blood. This method was applied to peripheral blood and skin samples in 263 dogs during a mass survey in the Cévennes focus. PCR was compared to serology and all results were analysed according to clinical status. The ‘CVL-infection’ prevalence was found to be 79.8% by PCR compared with 29.6% by serology: 89.4% of symptomatic and 65.2% of asymptomatic dogs harboured parasites in peripheral blood. This study confirms the high prevalence of asymptomatic carriers of Leishmania. In total, for the diagnosis of CVL in sick dogs, method R is recommended in view of its 100% positive predictive value (compared with 30% for method KRV). A strategy best adapted for prevalence surveys might combine serology and highly sensitive PCR on peripheral blood.

Several species of malarial protozoans commonly parasitize the same host population and often the same individual host. This paper reviews the evidence for interactions among such host-sharing parasites. Field studies measuring the cross-sectional prevalence of malarial species often record fewer mixed infections than expected by chance, suggesting that one parasite has excluded another or suppressed its parasitaemia to undetectable levels. Prevalences may vary reciprocally between seasons, with one species increasing in prevalence while another decreases, despite parallel increases in the transmission rates of both, again suggesting suppression of one species by another. However, longitudinal studies of individual hosts indicate that malarial parasites may also favourably affect the host environment for each other, perhaps due to their depressive effect on the immune system: this is shown by the recrudescence of a latent malarial species immediately before or after the parasitic wave of another species. The suppression hypothesis is supported by data derived from the simultaneous inoculation of two Plasmodium species into laboratory animals; many studies have shown that one or both species are suppressed. This may be mediated by competition for host cells or nutrients, or by heterologous immunity. However, the suppressed species rebounds after the other species has abated, and may show a prolonged infection. Experimental evidence that one species can facilitate the recrudescence of another is minimal, but this may reflect the paucity of investigations of this phenomenon. Laboratory studies show only minor cross-resistance between host-sharing species, which is consistent with the hypothesis that their co-occurrence has led to antigenic divergence or that species showing strong heterologous resistance cannot co-exist in the same host population. Such complementarity occurs not only with the host immune response but also with many other life-history characteristics of host-sharing parasites, such as host cell preference. I conclude that malarial species have been important in each other's evolution, particularly in the tropics where multi-species complexes are common.

Six murine monoclonal antibodies to Leishmania tropica major have been prepared and the properties of these antibodies studied. Two (WIC 79.3 and 79.7) were L. tropica major species-specific and bound to promastigote cell surfaces, to parasitized macrophages, but not isolated amastigotes. No evidence was found for the production of antibody to the antigenic determinants recognized by WIC 79.3 or 79.7 during L. tropica major infections in mice and hamsters. One antibody (WIC 79.1) bound to sub-cellular organelles of Leishmania species but to a different sub-cellular organelle of Trypanosoma cruzi. Two others bound to the flagellum, one (WIC 79.2) to all Leishmania species, T. cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei, the other (WIC 79.4) only of L. tropica major and L. donovani species. One antibody (WIC 79.5) was directed against an unknown internal antigen found in all Leishmania species and T. cruzi

Commitment to the production of female and male gametocytes was studied in the NF54 line of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The development of sibling parasites derived from individual schizonts was followed, and 2 antisera against the female gametocyte-specific protein Pfg377 and the male gametocyte-specific protein α-tubulin II were used to determine the sex of sibling gametocytes. The experiment showed that individual cohorts of sibling gametocytes were stained in a mutually exclusive fashion by only one or the other antiserum, indicating that individual schizonts committed to yield sexual parasite progeny produce gametocytes of the same sex. This work suggests that in P. falciparum commitment to sexual differentiation occurs prior to schizont maturation, at the same moment when the sex of the resulting gametocytes is determined.

Sand fly saliva plays an important role in Leishmania transmission. We characterized the host antibody response to saliva from 3 sand fly species. Specific IgG was observed in sera from experimentally bitten mice as well as in sera from individuals living in the endemic area of Leishmania tropica in Sanliurfa, Turkey. Sera of Sanliurfa inhabitants showed high IgG levels against saliva of Phlebotomus sergenti and P. papatasi, the 2 most abundant sand fly species in this area, but did not react with saliva of the New World sand fly, Lutzomyia longipalpis. Patients with active Le. tropica lesions possessed significantly higher anti-P. sergenti IgG levels than the healthy individuals from the same place while anti-P. papatasi IgG levels were equal in both groups. Major protein bands in P. papatasi and P. sergenti saliva reacted with both, human and mice sera; in P. papatasi, however, mouse IgG recognized preferentially the 42 kDa protein band while the human IgG reacted strongly with the 30 kDa band. Our data suggest that the antibody response to sand fly saliva could be used for monitoring the exposure of humans and other hosts to sand flies and might be used as a marker of risks for Leishmania transmission in endemic areas.

Tick saliva, a fluid once believed to be only relevant for lubrication of mouthparts and water balance, is now well known to be a cocktail of potent anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecules that helps these arthropods obtain a blood meal from their vertebrate hosts. The repertoire of pharmacologically active components in this cocktail is impressive as well as the number of targets they specifically affect. These salivary components change the physiology of the host at the bite site and, consequently, some pathogens transmitted by ticks take advantage of this change and become more infective. Tick salivary proteins have therefore become an attractive target to control tick-borne diseases. Recent advances in molecular biology, protein chemistry and computational biology are accelerating the isolation, sequencing and analysis of a large number of transcripts and proteins from the saliva of different ticks. Many of these newly isolated genes code for proteins with homologies to known proteins allowing identification or prediction of their function. However, most of these genes code for proteins with unknown functions therefore opening the road to functional genomic approaches to identify their biological activities and roles in blood feeding and hence, vaccine development to control tick-borne diseases.

Recent developments in parasite immune evasion and exploitation are reviewed with special reference to the papers presented in this volume. Parasites, broadly defined, of animals with good immune responses have evolved many strategies that adapt them to survive and reproduce. These strategies may be passive, or may involve active intervention with host immune regulation, and can be categorized as immune evasion, immune exploitation and molecular piracy. The concept of immune evasion began with Paul Ehrlich's demonstration of antigenic variation in African trypanosomes and was reinforced by later ideas on molecular mimicry. Molecular mimicry is updated in the light of recent discoveries about degeneracy and plasticity of TCR/MHC-peptide recognition. Possible connections between two of its postulated consequences, evasion and autoimmunity, are discussed. Another putative consequence of molecular mimicry, host antigenic polymorphism, is also updated. The concept of exploitation of host immune responses by parasites has been reinforced by new data on its first known examples, especially the immune dependence of schistosome egg excretion. Newer examples include use of host cytokines as parasite growth factors, virokines, viroreceptors and helminth pseudocytokines. Finally, questions of host gene capture by viruses and possible horizontal gene transfer between host and parasite mediated by retroviruses are examined. The latter is compared with molecular conservation as a source of molecular mimicry and other aspects of host–parasite coevolution.

The numerical distributions of Echinococcus granulosus in an experimental dog population are described. At all dose rates of protoscoleces from 10 to 175000 the distribution of worms was over-dispersed. Host age had no effect. There was a direct proportionality between the infective-stage density and rate of infection, and between the latter and the index of clumping. The worm burdens were significantly higher in the proximal than distal portions of the small intestine. Lengths of the 3- and 4-segmented worms increased from 4 to 10 and 4 to 8 weeks of age, respectively. Thereafter apolysis was asynchronous and could not be determined. Eggs were first detected in the faeces at 6 weeks and the mean age at oogenesis was 7·26 weeks. Retarded growth of the whole population of worms was observed in some dogs. For the first few infections, worm burdens varied widely in the same dog, but by the 6th infection 50% of the dog population had developed a relative insusceptibility to infection. Growth or oogenesis of the worms were not affected. A short-acting immune response was artificially induced in some dogs following the parenteral injection of activated embryos of E. granulosus, Taenia hydatigena, T. ovis, T. multiceps, T. pisiformis and T. serialis. The response affected either the number of worms established, growth or oogenesis or all three parameters. There was a strong positive correlation between numbers and lengths of worms in dogs with acquired and induced immunity, indicating that no ‘crowding’ effects were involved. In sheep populations the mean number of cysts which established was directly proportional to the number of eggs given, implying that there was no negative feedback mechanism operating at this stage of the life-cycle. The distribution of the larval population in sheep was over-dispersed and the index of clumping increased with the size of the egg dose from 25 to 2500 eggs. Protoscoleces were first observed in cysts at 2 years and the proportion producing them increased with age, with an estimate of 50% of cysts containing protoscoleces at 6 years. No deaths were observed in dogs or sheep even when high parasite burdens were present, implying that E. granulosus does not regulate the population of its hosts.

Why do parasites kill their hosts? During this past decade, research in three different areas; evolutionary ecology, medical microbiology, and population genetics has provided theory and data that address this and related questions of selection and the evolution and maintenance of parasite virulence. A general theory of parasite–host coevolution and the conditions for selection to favour parasite virulence has been put forth. Considerable advances have been made in elucidating the mechanisms of pathogenicity and inheritance of virulence in bacteria. The population genetic structure and the relation ship between pathogenic and non-pathogenic forms has been determined for a number of species of bacteria. We critically review these developments and their implications for questions of selection and the evolution and maintenance of virulence in bacteria. We postulate how selection may operate on specific types of bacterial virulence and present a general protocol to experimentally test hypotheses concerning selection and the evolution of virulence in bacteria.

Blastocystis SSU-rDNA sequence data from 317 captive and free-living non-human primates (NHPs) representing 30 genera of apes, Old and New World (OW and NW) monkeys and prosimians were analysed to investigate subtype (ST) and allele distribution among hosts. Excluding 20 mixed ST infections, 27% of the sequences belonged to ST1, 22% to ST2, 34% to ST3, 1% to ST4, 4% to ST5, 11% to ST8, <1% to ST13 and 1% to ST15. The study confirmed cryptic host specificity of ST1 and ST3; conversely, considerable overlap in ST2 alleles exists among humans and NHPs. Subtype distribution in humans and NHPs differs mainly in that ST4 is rarely reported in NHPs while ST5 and ST8 are both unusual in humans. This may be due to host specificity and/or the apparent geographically restricted range of some subtypes. While the distribution of ST1, ST2 and ST3 was independent of NHP group or geographical association, ST5 was seen only in apes and OW monkeys and ST8 primarily in arboreal NHPs and only in species native to Asia or South America.

In parallel with massive research efforts in human schistosomiasis over the past 30 years, persistent efforts have been made to understand the basis for compatibility and incompatibility in molluscan schistosomiasis. Snail plasma contains molecules that are toxic to trematodes, but these seem to kill only species that never parasitize the mollusc used as the source of plasma. A sporocyst will be killed actively by haemocytes alone if they are from a snail that is resistant to the trematode. Oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms play a major role. Enzymes such as NADPH oxidase, superoxide dismutase, myeloperoxidase and nitric oxide synthase are critical components of the putative killing pathways. Metabolic intermediates such as hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide appear to be more important against trematodes than the shorter-lived intermediates that are more important in anti-microbial defences. Products secreted by trematode larvae influence the physiology of snail haemocytes, implying active counter-defences mounted by the parasite, but these remain largely unexplored. A possible molecular basis for the susceptibility/resistance dichotomy in molluscan schistosomiasis is suggested to be deficient forms of enzymes in the respiratory burst pathway, and a selective disadvantage for schistosome resistance is an integral component of this model.

Recombinant vaccines have been developed which are highly effective in preventing infection with Taenia ovis in sheep, Taenia saginata in cattle, Taenia solium in pigs and Echinococcus granulosus in livestock animals. T. ovis and T. saginata are economically significant parasites and the commercial success or otherwise of vaccines against them will rely on their economic value. E. granulosus and T. solium are zoonotic parasites that cause cystic hydatid disease and neurocysticercosis, respectively, in humans. Vaccines against these parasites have been developed to assist with the control of transmission of the human diseases rather than for prevention of infections in livestock per se. Regions of high prevalence for cystic hydatid disease and neurocysticercosis occur primarily in the developing world. As a consequence, vaccines against them are of little or no commercially interest – they are Orphan Vaccines. Lack of commercial interest in these vaccines has made public sector support for their development necessary well beyond the research phase trough into completion of commercial scale-up and other more commercially-related assessments. Practical use of the vaccines will require commercial-scale production according to international manufacturing standards. Identifying partners and support in this endeavour is now of prime importance in efforts to achieve the potential of these vaccines as new tools for the control of cystic hydatid disease and neurocysticercosis.

An apparatus for the artificial feeding of tsetse has been described. Fresh defibrinated blood at 36 °C is circulated with a peristaltic pump through feeding capsules. The efficiency of the method has been compared with that of the Cockings' method and with the live host feeding. The flies exposed to feeding on this apparatus showed significantly higher feeding frequency than those allowed to feed on the Cockings' apparatus. Compared with the live host feeding, the feeding frequency for circulating blood method was slightly lower but the difference was not significant. Once the fly is induced to feed, it would in most cases complete engorgement unless disturbed. The rate of crop emptying in flies fed by the Cockings' method was abnormally slower as compared to those fed on the circulating blood. The present study indicates that for the successful artificial feeding of tsetse, it is essential to circulate the blood and regulate the temperature of the medium and the feeding surface to approximately 36 °C.

I wish to thank Mr S. B. Kutuza for technical help, and the Director of E.A.T.R.O. for permission to publish this work.

Problems of pattern and scale are considered in relation to helminth communities of freshwater fish by examining them at different hierarchical taxonomic and spatial scales, with a view to seeking generalizations of heuristic value, assessing the importance of phylogenetic and ecological determinants of community structure and improving understanding of unpredictable communities. Initially, communities were analysed at the level of salmonid genera, focusing on Oncorhynchus, in its heartland in Canada: then in O. mykiss throughout its global range and finally in individual localities to which it has been introduced in Britain. In the heartland, communities are dominated by salmonid specialist helminths, forming a phylogenetic element: the minority ecological element comprises broad generalists and non-salmonid specialists. Most species except generic specialists are shared between host genera. As the distance to which O. mykiss was translocated from its heartland increases, so generic specialists disappear first and then salmonid specialists decline. The community is thus increasingly composed of generalists and it also becomes increasingly poor. Helminths may be acquired from native salmonids and/or unrelated hosts, depending on availability. This same pattern is paralleled in individual localities in a restricted region: the phylogenetic element reflects the native salmonid species present and the ecological element the presence of other genera of fish, i.e. a supply-side situation. The change of scale in analysis has thus enabled the recognition of generalizations and patterns of heuristic value and improved the understanding of unpredictable communities by interpreting local variation as ecological ‘noise’ that often obscures fundamental patterns. In this and other taxa of fish, phylogenetic elements dominate helminth communities in the heartlands, but ecological elements dominate as the host increasingly becomes a stranger in a strange land.

Rodent and avian malaria parasites have been reported to have an adverse affect upon the reproductive fitness of mosquitoes. In order to determine whether fecundity reduction occurs in Anopheles gambiae s. l. infected with human malaria a study of wild-caught mosquitoes was undertaken in the Muheza district of north east Tanzania. Fully engorged, indoor resting females were collected daily for 4 months and maintained for 5 days. A sporozoite rate of 11·5% was detected for the whole collection and of those females alive on day 6 an additional 17·5% were infected with oocysts alone. Oocyst, but not sporozoite, infection resulted in a 17·5% reduction in egg production. Fecundity reduction was not caused by a reduction in bloodmeal size in infected females and no size difference was detected between oocyst-infected and uninfected females although sporozoite-positive females were significantly larger. Comparisons in parity between uninfected and infected groups indicate that infection does not affect survival beyond the first gonotrophic cycle as no changes in survivorship occurred as a result of sporozoite infection.

Beginning in 1970, the potential of remote sensing (RS) techniques, coupled with geographical information systems (GIS), to improve our understanding of the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis in Africa, has steadily grown. In our current review, working definitions of RS, GIS and spatial analysis are given, and applications made to date with RS and GIS for the epidemiology and ecology of schistosomiasis in Africa are summarised. Progress has been made in mapping the prevalence of infection in humans and the distribution of intermediate host snails. More recently, Bayesian geostatistical modelling approaches have been utilized for predicting the prevalence and intensity of infection at different scales. However, a number of challenges remain; hence new research is needed to overcome these limitations. First, greater spatial and temporal resolution seems important to improve risk mapping and understanding of transmission dynamics at the local scale. Second, more realistic risk profiling can be achieved by taking into account information on people's socio-economic status; furthermore, future efforts should incorporate data on domestic access to clean water and adequate sanitation, as well as behavioural and educational issues. Third, high-quality data on intermediate host snail distribution should facilitate validation of infection risk maps and modelling transmission dynamics. Finally, more emphasis should be placed on risk mapping and prediction of multiple species parasitic infections in an effort to integrate disease risk mapping and to enhance the cost-effectiveness of their control.