Symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi play a central role in biological interactions and biogeochemical cycles since the carbon they obtain from their photosynthetic plant hosts is allocated via the mycorrhizal mycelium to the soil ecosystem (Finlay & Rosling, 2005). The focus of much early mycorrhizal research was on the effect of the mycorrhizal mycelium on uptake of inorganic nutrients by individual plants, often studied in the absence of other soil organisms. More recent research has a broader focus on a wider range of possible effects (Newsham et al., 1995; Finlay, 2004). In addition to interactions with their own host plant roots, the mycelia interact with a range of organic and inorganic substrates, as well as with different organisms such as bacteria, fungi, soil micro- and meso-fauna and the roots of secondary host plants. Three trends in mycorrhizal research, noted by Smith and Read in 1997, are still relevant today. New information from the fossil record and, in particular, developments in molecular phylogeny have enabled progress in understanding different evolutionary aspects of the symbiosis (Hibbett et al., 2000; Corradi et al., 2004; Bidartondo, 2005). Secondly, there is an increased emphasis on the extraradical mycelium, the most dynamic component of the symbiosis, the fungal hyphae growing from the host plant roots that make direct contact with organic and inorganic substrates and interact with other soil organisms (Leake et al. 2004a).

Lichens are characteristically found in environments subject to extremes of temperature, desiccation and low nutrient status. Despite this sexual structures are often formed in abundance. The underlying mechanisms of sex in lichen-forming fungi are discussed, together with possible ecological reasons for the persistence of sexuality. Special features of lichen sex are highlighted including sex at the limits of life on earth in Antarctica, re-lichenization following sex and dispersal, and the perennial nature of lichen fruiting bodies.

Two species of nematode endoparasites, Acrostalagmus bactrosporus Drechsler and Acrostalagmus obovatus Drechsler, which infect by spore adhesion, are transferred into the recently erected genus, Haptocillium Zare and Gams. We report on these species for the first time since their initial description over 60 years ago. Cultivation of both these fungi on corn meal agar revealed the production of alternative spore types not seen in association with the nematode host.

Zymography is an electrophoretic technique by which enzyme activity can be visualized directly on a polyacrylamide gel as discrete bands. A modified, more rapid technique for amylase zymography is described and compared with previously published methods. Whereas previous methods are based on 0.1 M acetate buffer as substrate buffer, our method utilizes 50mM Tris buffer containing Ca2+, Na+, NaN3 and Triton X-100 which helps rapid hydrolysis of the starch and stabilization of the enzyme. The staining procedure, previously requiring overnight incubation of the gel in iodine solution at 4 °C, has been reduced to 5 min at room temperature. Both methods gave rise to comparable levels of enzyme activity on polyacrylamide gels. Our modified method requires 8 h to complete the whole zymographical procedure instead of 18-20 h as in previous methods.

The extraradical mycelium of ectomycorrhizas is comprised of a network of hyphae that may initiate rhizomorphs, sclerotia and sexual reproductive structures. The development of these structures requires photosynthates produced by host trees. In this study, the initiation and early development of Laccaria bicolor (Maire) Orton fruitbodies (basidiocarps) were studied. Seedlings of Pinus resinosa Ait. and Pinus sylvestris L. were colonized by L. bicolor, a broad host epigeous ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetous fungal species, in growth pouches. Ectomycorrhizas with an extensive extraradical mycelium formed on short roots within 7-12 days after fungal inoculum was introduced. Numerous sites of hyphal aggregation, many of which subsequently developed into basidiocarp primordia, were initiated in the extraradical mycelium. Initial changes in aggregating hyphae included swelling and branching followed by growth of hyphae perpendicular to the paper wick in growth pouches. A stipe and a pileus primordium developed but none of these basidiocarp primordia matured. Distinct regions were evident in the stipe and pileus when sections were stained by various methods. Loose hyphae at the apex and periphery of the pileus were separated by mucilage. In Petri dishes with vermiculite as the substrate, basidiocarps of Laccaria laccata formed in ectomycorrhizal associations with Pinus sylvestris, developed a mature pileus with an hymenium and mature basidiospores.

Fungi play a key role in ecosystem nutrient cycles by scavenging, concentrating, translocating and redistributing nitrogen. To quantify and predict fungal nitrogen redistribution, and assess the importance of the integrity of fungal networks in soil for ecosystem function, we need better understanding of the structures and processes involved. Until recently nitrogen translocation has been experimentally intractable owing to the lack of a suitable radioisotope tracer for nitrogen, and the impossibility of observing nitrogen translocation in real time under realistic conditions. We have developed an imaging method for recording the magnitude and direction of amino acid flow through the whole mycelial network as it captures, assimilates and channels its carbon and nitrogen resources, while growing in realistically heterogeneous soil microcosms. Computer analysis and modeling, based on these digitized video records, can reveal patterns in transport that suggest experimentally testable hypotheses. Experimental approaches that we are developing include genomics and stable isotope NMR to investigate where in the system nitrogen compounds are being acquired and stored, and where they are mobilized for transport or broken down. The results are elucidating the interplay between environment, metabolism, and the development and function of transport networks as mycelium forages in soil. The highly adapted and selected foraging networks of fungi may illuminate fundamental principles applicable to other supply networks.

Unguiculella tityrii (Velen.) Huhtinen & Spooner, a tiny discomycete with whitish apothecia associated with pyrenomycete fruitbodies mainly in rabbit dung has been found in several localities in Scotland and one in England. It was previously unknown in Britain. A description and brief account of this species is provided.

The Glomeromycota is the newest fungal phylum. These are the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi that form symbioses with the majority of land plant species. Fossil and molecular evidence suggest this is an ancient symbiosis, that may have been instrumental in enabling plants to colonise terrestrial habitats. The AM fungi gain carbon from their plant host, and the primary benefit to plants is thought to be the acquisition of phosphate, a highly immobile ion in soil. However, they are thought to have many other ecological benefits. Host specificity has been considered to be low in this group, as most fungi in culture will colonise most plants, but recent evidence suggests that some AM fungi show a degree of specificity. We review the evidence revealing the genetic structure of this ancient group of fungi. Although a consensus has not yet been reached, we suggest that understanding the evolution and genetic structure of this enigmatic group may be the key to understanding how they function in ecosystems.

An early Renaissance painting of a hunt by Paolo Uccello depicts a large number of objects most likely to be mushrooms on a forest floor. The putative mushrooms do not suggest any strong symbolism and the hunters and their entourage do not appear to pay any attention to them.

There has been interest in using environmental screening procedures for enhancing the metabolomic production profiles by fungi which are of pharmaceutical interest. This study examined two ecologically distinct species, Epicoccum nigrum and Sarophorum palmicola, in solid substrate fermentation systems over a range of water availability conditions (water activity, aW). Total secondary metabolite profiles were obtained by HPLC + diode array detection after 14 days incubation on cereal-based substrates in relation to four aW treatments. Temporal studies (24 d, E. nigrum and 18 d, S. palmicola) showed that metabolite production profiles varied markedly between the two fungi. For E. nigrum, metabolite production generally increased with reduction in aW, and was optimal in the range 0.99 - 0.97. In contrast to this, for S. palmicola, metabolite production was restricted to the highest aW level used, 0.998, and declined to zero at 0.99 aW. Statistical analysis revealed that time, aW and their interactions were significant in all cases (p<0.001). The potential for using ecophysiological stresses for enhancing natural product discovery is discussed.

Ectomycorrhizas (ECM) are dual organs formed between the terminal feeder roots of many plant species and certain soil fungi. The species richness and taxonomic diversity of ECM symbionts is impressive: ca. 7-10,000 fungal and ca. 8,000 plant species may be capable of forming ECM. The latter are the dominant components of forest and woodland ecosystems over much of the earths surface. The obligate nature of the symbiosis for ECM fungi has been brought into question by reports that some species produce sporocarps under field conditions in the absence of a host plant. We suggest that there is no unequivocal evidence to support this. The spread of tree roots is often underestimated and small, overlooked hosts such as dwarf Salix spp or sedges may explain the appearance of ECM sporocarps in vegetation apparently devoid of ECM hosts. Compared to plant material, the sporocarps of ECM fungi contain high concentrations of N and P. We show that it would take between 3 and 14 million mycorrhizal tips, or 1800 km of hyphae, to supply the N in one sporocarp of Boletus edulis. The mantle formed by the fungus over the root tip is the likely site of storage for the N and P required for sporocarp production, and we discuss the chemical and structural mechanisms developed on mantles by ECM fungi to defend this resource against fungivory.

We investigated post-fire morels (Morchella species), especially the “gray” morels of Idaho and Montana, by collecting ecological and genetic data and by interviewing commercial mushroom harvesters and buyers. Gray morels fruited exclusively in high-elevation Picea/Abies forests that had burned the preceding summer, predominantly in zones of moderate fire intensity as indicated by a layer of dead conifer needles on top of the fire ash. Genetic analysis revealed five varieties of morels among our specimens. Mushroom harvesters confirmed that gray morels are economically crucial to their business because they are typically large, heavy, and durable. Harvesters and buyers described the varieties of morels they encountered differently than mycologists did, but cooperative research could facilitate mutual understanding of morel diversity and benefit everyone involved.

Although fungi are fundamentally important in our every day lives, the Kingdom is largely ignored by the National Curriculum in the United Kingdom. Consequently, children are missing out on being taught about a crucially important group of organisms. This paper aims to show the deficiencies in the curriculum specifications in UK primary and secondary schools, and describes a range of British Mycological Society learning resources designed to remedy the situation. These ready-made (and classroom-tested) lessons and workshop sessions cover a range of fungal topics from cell structure and function, through biotechnology to health topics and plant growth and disease. The resources include games and activities, aiming to increase knowledge and awareness of fungi in an active, entertaining way and thereby maintain interest in biology as a science.

The new genus Celatogloea is proposed to accommodate a monosterigmate, heterobasidiomycetous, intrahymenial parasite of Corticium roseum, previously not distinguished from its host. The new combination Celatogloea simplicibasidium is proposed, based on Laeticorticium simplicibasidium.

The myco-heterotrophs comprise over 400 achlorophyllous plant species in 87 genera that are parasitic upon fungi, and exploit them as their principle source of carbon. In addition, there are estimated to be over 30,000 species, comprising approximately 10% of the plant kingdom, that depend upon myco-heterotrophy for establishment from dust seeds or spores. These initially myco-heterotrophic plants require fungal-carbon during their critical early establishment phases but go on to produce green shoots on emerging into light from soil or as epiphytes on other plants. This extraordinary mode of nutrition, first recognised more than a century ago, is hidden in the initially myco-heterotrophic plants and in the fully achlorophyllous species continues to be misrepresented by many botanists as a form of ‘saprophytism’. As a consequence, the parasitic dependence of these plants upon fungi is not widely appreciated. This is the only group of parasitic plants for which, in over 90% of cases, the host species (which are fungi) providing their carbon and nutrients remain unidentified. This article reviews some of the exciting recent progress made in understanding the nature and properties of fungi parasitized by plants, and in the use of distinctive carbon and nitrogen isotope ‘signatures’ of myco-heterotrophs to quantify fungal dependence in plants with green shoots that remain partially myco-heterotrophic in adulthood.

In a preliminary study of stable and declining beds of Spartina anglica five sporulating ascomycetes were identified. A comparison between stable and declining Spartina beds demonstrated that there was no overall difference in the fungal species found, and no significant difference between the numbers of isolates from the different beds except that Lulworthia sp. was more prominent in the stable beds. The vertical distribution of species of ascomycetes within Spartina anglica plants, from root to leaf-tip, is related to the status of the fungus as either an obligate or facultative marine fungus. The significance of these findings is discussed.

Grass silage is a key source of forage for over-wintering livestock in Ireland. In the early 1990s Schizophyllum commune emerged as a contaminant of big-bale silage. A fungus rarely observed in Irish woodlands, S. commune is now commonly found on baled silage throughout Ireland and is also recorded on silage in Britain. Characteristics of the fungus on bales are described and potential consequences of its occurrence on silage are discussed.

Individual fungal cells within genetically-uniform populations can exhibit striking phenotypic variability. This phenotypic heterogeneity has been proposed recently to promote the fitness of fungal populations, independently of fitness contributions arising from genetic diversity. Consequently, several major recent studies have been focused on unravelling the physiological and molecular bases for heterogeneity. This article provides an overview of the current state of play in this emerging field, with a focus on heterogeneity in the single-cell yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and on the novel methodologies being developed to study heterogeneity.

Helen Gwynne-Vaughan and Lilian Hawker were influential British mycologists active in the early and mid-20th century respectively. Here their personalities, careers, research achievements and writings are assessed and compared.

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is an important forest tree species which was always considered being nonproblematic with regard to its susceptibility to pathogens and insects. However during the past decade, in Europe and the north-eastern USA an increasing number of trees and stands were showing symptoms typical for Phytophthora diseases: increased crown transparency, abnormally small and often yellowish foliage, a dieback of the crown, tongue-shaped necroses of the inner bark and the cambium with tarry or rusty spots on the surface of the bark either extending up to 7m from the stem base (collar rot) or occurring isolated higher up the stem (aerial bleeding cankers), fine root destructions and necrotic lesions on suberized roots. Large-scale investigations on both continents using specific isolation methods and ELISA kits for detection, and morphological and physiological parameters as well as ITS-DNA sequence analysis for identification demonstrated that several Phytophthora species were regularly involved as inciting agents of the decline. The most important species were Phytophthora citricola, P. cambivora and P. cactorum in Europe, and P. inflata in the USA. Their pathogenicity to beech was shown by stem inoculation and soil infestation tests performed by various groups. A small-scale nursery survey in Germany revealed that beech fields are regularly infested with various Phytophthora species. Options for disease management and control are discussed, and an emphasis is put on the prevention of disease spread via infested nursery stock.