The introduction of GIS has opened up new possibilities in combining different sources of geographical information. In Norway, an agro-meteorological decision system is under development which combines gridded weather information with soil and crop development data. The system is based on a daily scale soil moisture model driven by meteorological inputs. Weather information is based on in-situ observations, and spatial interpolation schemes are used to establish fine-mesh grids of these variables over the model domain. These interpolation schemes take advantage of geographical co-variables such as terrain information. The soil moisture model is used to estimate the soil water content, which is the determinant of soil suitability for tillage and sowing. The system also includes a phenological model for identification of suitable days when combine-harvesting of cereals can be satisfactorily undertaken.

Spatial interpolation of the meteorological elements is based upon all available in-situ observations. The different elements are interpolated by different interpolation techniques. Snow depth, cloud cover, relative humidity and wind are in this first version, interpolated by using inverse distance weighting. Precipitation is determined by triangulation with elevation adjustment. Temperature is interpolated by using a residual kriging approach that includes five independent predictors in the trend equation. Evaporation is estimated by using the Penman2 formula based on the estimates of the meteorological elements.

This approach is a good demonstration of the benefits of applying GIS and distributed geo-data in cross-disciplinary situations. The application is a valuable contribution to soil capability assessments.

The development of a hurricane-like vortex over the Mediterranean Sea was studied using (mainly) the UK Met. Office Unified Model. The Mediterranean cyclone formed in the morning of 15 January 1995 over the sea between Greece and Sicily. Strong convection was observed prior to its genesis. During the longest part of the cyclone's lifetime, strong surface fluxes and, as a result, deep convection existed in its vicinity. Its track was influenced by the surface fluxes and the flow in the wider region. The forecast of the mesoscale and limited-area models reproduced the general characteristics of the actual system as they appeared at the surface and upper-air charts and at the satellite imagery. The investigation of the cyclone's characteristics gave strong evidence (including an ‘eye’ and a warm core) to support the initial assertion that it was similar to tropical cyclones and some polar lows. Baroclinic instability does not seem particularly important, although the cyclone formed at the edge of a baroclinic zone. A numerical experiment showed the vortex did not develop in the absence of surface heat and moisture fluxes. Another experiment showed that sensible and latent heat fluxes were equally important in its development.

An operational procedure for alerting the public of stressful weather (exceptionally hot and cold situations) in Hong Kong has been implemented since late 1997. From a 28-year (1968-1995) climatological database, criteria based on a weather stress index (WSI) was established to define stressful weather conditions. A special bulletin is issued to the public when exceptionally high (hot, i.e. ≥ 97.5%) or low (cold, i.e. ≤ 2.5%) WSI is forecast. The bulletin provides information on current or predicted stressful weather conditions as well as statements on precautionary action to take. A study was also carried out to examine the effects of WSI on mortality rates on days with extreme WSI. Preliminary results indicate that there was a relationship between low WSI and mortality rates in winter. In summer, however, the results were not conclusive.

There is an increasing need for more rigorous and more broadly based determination of the economic value of meteorological services as an aid to decision-making on the appropriate level of funding to be committed to their provision at the national level. This paper develops an overall framework for assessment of the economic value of meteorological services based on the recognition that most national meteorological infrastructure and services possess the non rival properties of public goods. Given this overall framework for determination of both total and marginal benefits, four main methodologies appropriate for use in valuation studies - market prices, normative or prescriptive decision-making models, descriptive behavioural response studies and contingent valuation studies - are outlined and their strengths and limitations described. Notwithstanding the methodological limitations and the need for a much more comprehensive set of studies for the various application sectors, it is clear that the actual and potential benefits to individuals, firms, industry sectors and national economies from state-of-the-art meteorological and related services are substantial and that, at this stage, they are inadequately recognised and insufficiently exploited in many countries.

A nonhydrostatic version of Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU/NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5) is used to study the effects of the horizontal model resolution and orography while simulating an active western disturbance (WD) that affected northwest India from 21 to 25 January 1999. Two numerical experiments are conducted with six combinations of two factors: horizontal model resolution and topography. National Center for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysed data are used for the initial and boundary conditions. Simulation results indicate that the distribution and the rate of simulated precipitation due to a WD over northwest India is highly sensitive to the horizontal model resolution and topography. The model with finer resolution (30 km) is better able to estimate effects of mesoscale forcing on precipitation over the selected domain. The amount of precipitation simulated over the coarse domain is much less than the observed precipitation owing to the model's unrealistic representation of orographic effects and mesoscale forcing. Simulated terrain, vertical velocity, wind and streamline at different horizontal model resolutions are presented. The detailed structure and distribution of wind speed are simulated in the finer domain. Simulated vertical velocity and precipitation are less in the second experiment when a flat topography is used across the domain, which indicates that topography plays a significant role in modulating the WD. Sensitivity of the horizontal model resolution for precipitation is assessed and it is found that the finer domain of the model simulation gives better results.

A one-dimensional Kalman filter is proposed for the correction of maximum and minimum near surface (2 m) temperature forecasts obtained by a Numerical Weather Prediction model. In our study we used only one parameter (observed temperature), employing in this way scalar system and observation equations, and a limited time interval (7 days). As a result, our algorithm can be easily run on any PC with only minor technical support. The corresponding results are rather impressive, since the systematic error of our time series almost disappears, and they show the merit of post-processing even when only a simple method is applied.

A theoretical model of flow over a change in surface roughness shows that given an average geostrophic wind of between 8 and 13 m s−1 and near-neutral conditions the difference in equilibrium wind speed at 50 m height over roughness of 0.1 m and over the sea surface is about 20% or 2 m s−1. However, in non-neutral conditions the difference between on- and off-shore wind speeds is affected by changes in stability conditions. Using data from an off-shore monitoring project it is shown that flow over sea is typically associated with smaller stability corrections to the logarithmic wind speed profile owing to an increase in the number of near-neutral and unstable observations compared to flow over land. The presence of land is still detectable after flow of 1–2 km off-shore but its effect on stability and therefore the wind speed profile is reduced. The differences between stability climates on- and off-shore are not simple to elucidate since a number of factors such as the orientation of the coastline with regard to the prevailing wind direction, water depth and latitude are probably also important.

A new ice prediction strategy is presented based on the numerical modelling of surveyed geographical parameters. This approach enables the thermal projection of road surface temperatures across the road network entirely by model predictions and without the need for thermal maps. The influence of eight geographical parameters (latitude, altitude, sky-view factor, screening, roughness length, road construction, traffic density and topography) is investigated by means of sensitivity analyses. The sky-view factor is highlighted as the dominant control on road surface temperature, particularly at high levels of atmospheric stability. A numerical road weather model incorporating all eight parameters was run over 20 nights using forecast and retrospective meteorological data. The model has the ability to explain up to 72% of the variation in road surface temperature purely by thermally projecting surface temperature using geographical variables. Retrospective results produce an average r.m.s. error of 1 °C which is comparable to existing UK road weather models.

This paper presents a scheme that classifies reflectivity measurements from ground-based volume scanning radar into convective and stratiform precipitation types. The algorithm developed in this paper uses the neural network approach as a tool for classification. The algorithm is trained and validated on radar data obtained from 18 Weather Surveillance (WSR-88D) Doppler Radar sites in the southern United States, sampled over the period December 1997 to October 1999. For the training and validation of the neural network, classification information from a hybrid approach based on Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) classification products and low-level ground radar reflectivity fields is taken as reference. The approach utilises PR's ability to observe the vertical structure of storms with high resolution (250 metres) and WSR-88D's ability to observe the low-level horizontal reflectivity magnitude and spatial variability. The method was applied to an extended dataset consisting of storm cases associated with squall line convection, mesoscale convective system, and widespread stratiform precipitation with embedded convection. The scheme is shown to have an overall 75% probability of detection, 18% false alarm rate, 67% critical success ratio, and 0.554 in prediction correlation (Cramer's V coefficient). It has an overall 4% overestimation and 27% underestimation of stratiform and convective rain areas, respectively. The classification results are compared to two current methods and improvements are shown in terms of the above statistical measures and through visual comparison with PR classification fields. The improved classification scheme derived herein will help establish more accurate radar reflectivity-rainfall relationships and improve the retrieval of diabatic heating in different cloud systems.

A sub-synoptic vortex with characteristics of a tropical storm developed over the area between Italy and Greece, during the period 14–18 January 1995. Satellite imagery revealed that this vortex was associated with spirally distributed bands and a clearly defined ‘eye’. Ship reports and SSM/I retrieved winds show the existence of strong surface winds around the vortex. Simulation of the genesis and life-cycle of the vortex using the Regional Atmospheric Modelling System and the Eta model successfully reproduced the vortex formation, its strength and its path towards the northern African coast. The model results showed the importance of the surface fluxes (sensible and latent heat) in the development of the vortex on the rear side of a parent low-pressure system which was advected towards the east. During the mature stage of the vortex, latent-heat release within the convective motions was the dominant mechanism which sustained the vortex until its landfall.

We describe a method to remotely sense precipitation and classify its intensity over water, coasts and land surfaces. This method is intended to be used in an operational nowcasting environment. It is based on data obtained from the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) onboard NOAA-15. Each observation is assigned a probability of belonging to four classes: precipitation-free, risk of precipitation, precipitation between 0.5 and 5 mm/h, and precipitation higher than 5 mm/h. Since the method is designed to work over different surface types, it relies mainly on the scattering signal of precipitation-sized ice particles received at high frequencies. For the calibration and validation of the method we use an eight-month dataset of combined weather radar and AMSU data obtained over the Baltic area. We compare results for the AMSU-B channels at 89 GHz and 150 GHz and find that the high frequency channel at 150 GHz allows for a much better discrimination of different types of precipitation than the 89 GHz channel. While precipitation-free areas, as well as heavily precipitating areas (> 5 mm/h), can be identified to high accuracy, the intermediate classes are more ambiguous. This stems from the ambiguity of the passive microwave observations as well as from the non-perfect matching of the different data sources and sub-optimal radar adjustment. In addition to a statistical assessment of the method's accuracy, we present case studies to demonstrate its capabilities to classify different types of precipitation and to work over highly structured, inhomogeneous surfaces.

The development of solar energy as a power source in the next few years requires reliable estimation of available solar energy resources. At local scales, topography is the most important factor in determining the distribution of solar radiation at the surface. Interpolation techniques are usually employed to estimate solar radiation where stations are not available, but their usefulness is limited where topography is an important source of variability. The use of satellite data and more recently of models based on techniques GIS, have contributed to solve this difficulty. In this work the usefulness of a digital elevation model (DEM) in providing topographic information for the estimation of solar radiation in areas of complex topography is analysed. Daily global radiation values were generated using the Solar Analyst software, which uses topographic information to generate radiation data. The generated data were compared with the experimental data obtained from 14 radiometric stations located within the Sierra Nevada Natural Park (southern Spain), an area of complex topography. Results show the usefulness of the topographic information derived from a DEM to estimate the solar radiation in areas of complex topography. Nevertheless, results depend on the DEM resolution and it is important that other factors, such as the albedo, should also be taken into account to obtain better estimates.

The variation of road surface temperature across a road network is influenced regionally by meteorological parameters and locally by geographical parameters. A fast and reliable technique is described which allows the continuous collection of high resolution, geographical data including the sky-view factor which is suitable for use in road climate modelling studies. Then, by use of regression analysis, the relative importance of five geographical parameters (altitude, topography, sky-view factor, landuse and road construction) is assessed with respect to road surface temperature and atmospheric stability. Results show that sky-view factors dominate surface temperatures at high atmospheric stability whereas altitude becomes increasingly important as stability decreases. Finally, a statistical road surface temperature model is discussed with the ability to explain up to 75% of the variation of residual road surface temperatures in the study area entirely by the interaction of geographical parameters.

This study examines the influence of urban and meteorological factors on the surface air temperature field of the medium-sized city of Szeged, Hungary, using mobile and stationary measurements under different weather conditions between March and August 1999. This city, with a population of about 160 000, is situated on a low, flat flood plain. Efforts have been concentrated on investigating the maximum development of the urban heat island (UHI). Tasks include the determination of the spatial distribution of seasonal mean maximum UHI intensity and modelling of existing conditions in the period being studied. Multiple correlation and regression analyses are used to examine the effects of urban parameters (land-use characteristics and distance from the city centre determined in a grid network) and of meteorological parameters (wind speed, temperature) on thermal conditions in the study area. The results indicate isotherms increasing in regular concentric shapes from the suburbs towards the inner urban areas where the mean maximum UHI intensity reaches more than 3 °C in the studied periods. A strong relationship exists between urban thermal excess and distance, as well as built-up ratio. In contrast, meteorological conditions do not have any significant effect on the UHI intensity at the time of its maximum development.

Three severe storms caused great damage in Europe in December 1999. The first storm hit Denmark and Germany on 3 and 4 December, and the other two storms crossed France and Germany on 26 and 28 December. In this study, the performance of the Ensemble Prediction System (EPS) at the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) in predicting these intense storms is investigated. Results indicate that the EPS gave early indications of possible severe storm occurrence, and was especially useful when the deterministic TL319L60 forecasts issued on successive days were highly inconsistent. These results indicate that the EPS is a valuable tool for assessing quantitatively the risk of severe weather and issuing early warnings of possible disruptions.

The impact of an increase of the ensemble system horizontal resolution (TL255 integration from a TL511 analysis instead of the operational TL159 integration from a TL319 analysis) on the system performance is also investigated. Results show that the resolution increase enhances the ensemble performance in predicting the position and the intensity of intense storms.

This paper presents an analysis of rainfall amounts in Greece. For this purpose, monthly and annual rainfall data from 36 representative Greek weather stations were analysed statistically. Rainfall is represented by a standardised annual departure calculated as the ratio of the annual departure to the standard departure. The departures were calculated for two regional subdivisions. Clear evidence of changes in Greece's rainfall patterns over the past 25 years were found. The effect of changes on climatological rainfall means (‘normals’) is addressed and possible shifts in the rainy season were investigated. The secular variability of long time-series of annual rainfall amounts was also examined. In addition, the five-year running means of annual and monthly rainfall data and ‘normals’ were plotted. Comparisons of the means from the ‘old’ and ‘new’ 10-, 20- and 30-year, CLINO (Climatological Normal) period 1961–90 (the latest global standard normal period) and from the periods 1900–49 (‘old’ regime) and 1950–99 (‘new’ regime), as well as examination of the secular trend, shows that there is evidence that some parts of Greece have had shifts in their rainfall regime towards drier conditions. In general, rainfall amounts began to decline in the 1980s, a trend which has continued to the present. Most years between 1980 and 1999 experienced below to well-below ‘normal’ rainfall. Discrepancies between the ‘old’ and ‘new’ mean values for the amounts of rainfall and differences in the duration of rainy season suggest that ‘normal’ rainfall data for various water supply, planning, engineering and agricultural national projects should be calculated for the last 30 years. This is mostly true because of indications of a changing climate in Greece, a fact that requires more recent updating of the climatological ‘normals’.

A scheme for the detection of fog and low stratus over land during daytime based on data of the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument is presented. The method is based on an initial threshold test procedure in the MODIS solar bands 1–7 (0.62–2.155 μm). Fog and low stratus detection generally relies on the definition of minimum and maximum fog and low stratus properties, which are converted to spectral thresholds by means of radiative transfer calculations (RTC). Extended sensitivity studies reveal that thresholds mainly depend on the solar zenith angle and, hence, illumination-dependent threshold functions are developed. Areas covered by snow, ice and mid-/high-level clouds as well as bright/hazy land surfaces are omitted from the initial classification result by means of a subsequent cloud-top height test based on MODIS IR band 31 (at 12 μm) and a NIR/VIS ratio test. The validation of the final fog and low stratus mask generally shows a satisfactory performance of the scheme. Validation problems occur due to the late overpass time of the TERRA platform and the time lag between SYNOP and satellite observations. Apparent misclassifications are mainly found at the edge of the fog layers, probably due to over-or underestimation of fog and low stratus cover in the transition zone from fog to haze.

This paper undertakes a preliminary study into the temporal recording of road accidents in adverse weather. Monthly police accident data, by county, have been utilised for England and Wales, and weather-related road accident findings compared with the general weather patterns experienced over the British Isles. The results show that seasonal patterns to weather-related road accidents match the occurrence of hazardous conditions, with regional variations to weather patterns identifiable within the accident data.

The utility of a drought severity index, based on accumulated monthly precipitation deficits and a three-monthly initiation and termination rule, for assessing the variability in the timing and severity of the drought hazard between four selected locations in Devon and Cornwall since 1957 is documented. The robustness of the drought events identified is then assessed by changing the index formulation rules. Results indicate that, using a six-monthly, rather than a three-monthly, rule, drought sequences are more difficult to initiate and terminate and are more persistent with a longer mean duration. The drought severity indices are then used to define a hierarchy of significant drought events, isolated in terms of the number of indices simultaneously exceeding an arbitrarily defined severity. Seven Class I droughts, regional in extent, are then discussed; and circulation contrasts between events highlighted using aggregated Lamb weather types. Two drought sub-types emerge, distinguishable according to whether the controlling anticyclone had a greater tendency to be located to the north and east of the UK or to the south and west. A comparative analysis of the ongoing 1995-drought, in terms of its persistence, and rapidity of onset and cessation, is also conducted.

The clear sky UV-index is expressed as a function of two predictable quantities: the solar zenith angle and total ozone. This function is derived by fitting the measurements of total ozone and the UV-index obtained from two instruments, one in the mid-latitudes and one in the tropics. The shape of the function was chosen so that it represents the essentials of the underlying physics. This new function gives good results for all solar zenith angles between 0° and 90° and a wide range of total ozone values.