The pyrolysis conversion of vegetable residues into energy and biochar, and its incorporation in agricultural soil, reduces CO2 emission and provides a longterm soil carbon sequestration. Moreover, biochar application in soil seems to increase nutrient stocks in the rooting layer, improving crop yield. Compared with the numerous studies assessing the positive effect of biochar on yield, however, little research has been published elucidating the mechanisms responsible for the reported benefits. Few studies cited soil moisture as the key factor, attributing the increased yield to the higher soil water availability.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of biochar on the physical and hydraulic properties of a bare Padana Plain (Cadriano, Bologna) agricultural soil. A preliminary plot experiment in 2009 explored the influence of 10 and 30 kg ha–1 of biochar on soil moisture, without effects from plants. Results of the first experiment suggested using higher biochar rates in a similar experimental scheme. During the second experiment, 30 and 60 t ha–1 doses were investigated. Soil water content, bulk density, electrical conductivity and soil water retention were measured. The comparison between treated soils and the control indicates that the biochar rate is directly correlated to electrical conductibility and inversely correlated with bulk density. The effect on the density of soil can be very positive in case of heavy soils. The dark colour of the char increased the surface temperature with respect to the control, while no differences were detected at 7·5 cm depth. No influences were found on other soil characteristics, including soil pH, moisture and water retention.

This paper sets the wider global and Scottish context for this Special Issue of EESTRSE. Climate change is inextricably linked to wellbeing, security and sustainability. It poses a fundamental challenge to the way we organise society and our relationship to the exploitation of the Earth's resources. Rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, linked to burning fossil fuels and land use, present a major risk of climate change, with serious but uncertain impacts emerging at a regional scale. A new industrial revolution is needed to achieve energy security and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with energy efficiency and energy production emitting low or no CO2 at its heart. At present, on a global scale, there is a mismatch between the emphasis on economic growth and the need to reduce emissions and achieve a sustainable use of resources. A more sustainable blueprint for the future is emerging in Europe and Scotland has much to gain economically and socially from this change. Scotland's ambitious emission reduction targets (42% cut by 2020 and 80% by 2050) are achievable, but require major commitment and investment. Despite success in cutting emissions from activities within Scotland, Scotland's consumption-based emissions rose by 11% in 1996–2004.

This paper reviews the key evidence for global climate change and outlines the trends of climate change in Scotland, the potential impacts and the implications for policy makers. Human activity is causing a rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and there is little doubt that this is contributing to global warming. There is greater uncertainty about how this global trend will play out at a regional scale and also how close we are to climatic tipping points. Instrumental records document the overall trends and variability in Scotland's climate since 1914. These show that since the 1960s, Scotland's average climate has proved to be wetter (especially in the west) and warmer. This trend is expected to continue throughout the 21st Century with, on average, hotter and drier summers and milder and wetter winters. However, extreme events will continue to affect Scotland, as they have always done, and the severity and frequency of these events may increase. Sea levels will continue to rise modestly, especially in the Outer Hebrides and the Northern Isles. Some of the uncertainty in climatic predictions is captured in the probabilistic outputs of Defra's UK Climate Projections 2009 programme. An initial attempt to assess the likely impacts of climate change is provided in Defra's 2012 Climate Change Risk Assessment, which includes a report specific to Scotland. Whilst most of the risks involve negative impacts, with increased flooding and loss of biodiversity being especially adverse, there are also positive impacts with associated opportunities, especially in terms of increased agricultural production and larger numbers of tourists. The report on Scotland will allow different groups of policy makers to refine the risks associated with specific activities. But given the fragile nature of many of the metrics underpinning the report, caution should be exercised in using it to frame climate adaptation strategies.

Vertebrate fossils have been converted from natural history objects into research specimens through the act of preparation for over 200 years. All of the basic techniques applied to specimens in the 21st Century were already in use in palaeontological laboratories by the first decade of the 1900s. It behoves any worker in the field to be intimately familiar with processes for treatment of specimens, as these procedures almost always permanently alter material available for interpretation. Historic treatments also complicate attempts to re-treat or re-prepare specimens. Sometimes this results in damage to fossils and loss of information, and often in wasted resources. Most palaeontologists are unaware of the historical evolution of laboratory methods through this time; much of the documentation of this process is considered to be obscure. However, there is in fact a robust body of literature that chronicles the development of procedures for the preparation of fossils. Awareness of the past development of methods is crucial to guiding future directions in the palaeontological laboratory. Regular reporting of laboratory methods in the technical literature at a pace matching that of other analytical methods is integral to the function of palaeontology as a science.

Biochar has been reported to improve soil quality and crop yield; however, less is known about its effects on the physical and, in particular, structural properties of soil. This study examines the potential ability of biochar to improve water retention and crop growth through a pot trial using biochar concentrations of 0%, 1·5%, 2·5% and 5% w/w. X-ray computed tomography was used to measure soil structure via pore size characteristics; this showed that pore size is significantly affected by biochar concentration. Increasing biochar is associated with decreasing average pore size, which we hypothesise would impact heavily on hydraulic performance. At the end of the experiment, average pore size had decreased from 0·07 mm2 in the 0% biochar soil to 0·046 mm2 in the 5% biochar soil. Increased biochar concentration also significantly decreases saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil bulk density. It was also observed that increased biochar significantly decreases soil water repellency. Increased water retention was also observed at low matric potentials, where it was shown that increased biochar is able to retain more water as the soil dried out. The application of biochar had little effect on short-term (<10 weeks) wheat growth, but did improve water retention through a change in soil porosity, pore size, bulk density and wetting ability.

This paper sets out some of the economic factors underpinning Scotland's move to a low-carbon economy. Economics matters, since it addresses the costs of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the costs of climate change impacts, and the economic factors that motivate individuals' behaviour and the behaviour of businesses. All of these are important in understanding the barriers to meeting targets and to successful adaptation, and in thinking about how these barriers can be lifted. We discuss the relative merits of market mechanisms such as carbon taxes and cap-and-trade, the cost of including additional targets, and the issue of counting carbon embedded in imported goods. An efficient way of achieving carbon reductions is to widen the scope of carbon trading to include forestry, transport and agriculture. Energy efficiency in businesses and households and adaptation to climate change are a priority, because the benefits will be felt in the short term and at the local level.

The Briar Creek Bonebed (Artinskian, Nocona Formation) in Archer County is one of the richest sources of Dimetrodon bones in the Lower Permian of Texas, USA. Based on size, a small (D. natalis), an intermediate (D. booneorum), and a large species (D. limbatus) have been described from this locality. It has been proposed that these traditionally recognised species represent an ontogenetic series of only one species. However, the ontogenetic series hypothesis is inconsistent with the late ontogenetic state of the small bones, as suggested by their osteology and degree of ossification. Histological analysis of newly excavated material from the Briar Creek Bonebed has resolved some of the discretion between these two competing hypothesis, confirming the coexistence of a small (D. natalis) with at least one larger Dimetrodon species. An external fundamental system is present in the largest sampled long bones identified as D. natalis. The histology of D. natalis postcrania is described as incipient fibro lamellar bone. This tissue is a combination of parallel-fibred and woven-fibred bone that is highly vascularised by incipient primary osteons. The species status of D. booneorum and D. limbatus remain unresolved.

We studied the impact of added biochar on the N mineralisation dynamics of two organic fertilisers by incubating loamy sand soil for 133 days in controlled conditions. Biochar made from softwood chips was added to soil at 0, 4·6, 9·1 and 13·6 g kg–1 soil dry matter (DM) either alone, or in combination with meat bone meal (MBM) and composted cattle manure (CCM) fertilisers. Soil mineral N concentration was determined on days 0, 14, 28, 56, 84 and 133. Net N mineralisation in the MBM treatment was much larger than in the CCM or the unfertilised treatments. Constant soil moisture during the incubation provided suitable aerobic soil conditions for nitrification: after day 14, soil mineral N was dominated by nitrate in all treatments. Biochar additions decreased the mineral N concentrations in all treatments, probably because of immobilisation by microbes. In unfertilised soil, the immobilisation by biochar increased steadily with application rate and time, but in the MBM and CCM treatments, it started to decrease or level off after two months, possibly due to the turnover of microbial biomass. The main biochar-induced impacts on soil N mineralisation dynamics could be modelled by using standard and confined exponential models.

Although Scottish and UK governments have ambitious targets for climate change mitigation, and there is increased understanding of the risks to future prosperity of fossil fuel energy dependence, limited practical progress has been made by the advanced economies in reducing carbon emissions, especially when embedded emissions in imported consumer goods are taken into account. Significant contributory factors are the social and cultural values, beliefs and practices, which result in risks of climate change being regarded as secondary to short-term pressures for economic growth and increased consumer spending. The result is that climate change and transition to a low-carbon society become ‘back of the mind’ issues. Current policy designed to lower carbon emissions from household consumption treats society as a series of individuals, each responding rationally to market incentives to maximise short-term personal gain. ‘Greener choices’ are incentivised and encouraged by social marketing, but, at best, this approach will achieve only very gradual change. An alternative model treats society as comprising historically evolving, dynamic social systems and cultures that are capable of dealing with transformational change, when there is a shared understanding of the reasons for acting. From this perspective, society can implement step changes in behaviour through collaborative action in the interests of the longer-term common good. Political momentum can be gathered for new legislative and/or taxation measures, as for example in the case of the strong programme for tobacco control legislation in Scotland and the UK. By focusing on social and technical infrastructures, the built environment, and the regeneration of local economies, rather than on individual behaviours, government investment can have far greater impact. A distinctively Scottish narrative for a low-carbon society can create momentum for transition through shared understanding of the risks of climate change, and its meanings for social life, cultures, economic relationships and values.

Osteohistological characteristics of the large temnospondyl amphibian Metoposaurus diagnosticus from the Upper Triassic of Poland (Krasiejów locality) were determined using vertebral intercentra thin-sections from different regions and growth stages. The intercentra showed a trabecular structure in both the endochondral and periosteal domains. Endochondral ossification developed first, and the primary bone occurs near the periphery with a higher degree of remodelling in the centre. Periosteal bone deposition begins later; first on the ventral side, continuing laterally and finally onto the dorsal side. Periosteal growth rate was initially very rapid, and then subsequently decreased in rate. In all sections, numerous remains of calcified cartilage are visible, which may indicate a juvenile, paedomorphic or plesiomorphic character. The four histologic ontogenetic stages (HOS) of sampled vertebrae were determined based on growth marks. Most of the sampled bones belong to juvenile individuals (HOS 1 to 3), apart from one atlas and the largest anterior dorsal intercentrum, which represent the oldest described stage (HOS 4). Sharpey's fibres are preserved in ventro-lateral cortical regions, around parapophyses and on the posterior side of the neural arch.

This study is concerned with the relationship between carbonisation conditions and properties of the resultant bagasse char, and the challenging proposal for the use of fine bagasse char particles as high-performance solar light collectors. Bagasse char was obtained by carbonising raw bagasse at temperatures of 200–900°C for three hours in nitrogen (N2) gas. Characterisation of the resultant bagasse char was performed by elemental analysis (EA), scanning electric microscope (SEM) observation, estimation of colour, nominal bulk density and evaluation of specific surface area and pore structure by N2 gas absorption/desorption. The most typical property of the resultant bagasse char is its unique pore structure, which is clear in SEM observation. The largest specific surface area of bagasse char in this study was about 600 m2/g, which is as large as commercial activated carbon materials. Macro-, meso- and micro-porous structures in the bagasse char induce many important characteristics, such as increased hydrophilicity, very low bulk density and excellent light absorption and accumulation. We also suggest the use of bagasse char as an excellent heat insulation material. The energy used for air conditioning in a private house or office building can be decreased by more than 50–60% by use of this insulator on the roof or walls.

Land use and the management of our natural resources such as soils and water offer great opportunities to sequester carbon and mitigate the effects of climate change. Actions on forestry, soil carbon and damaged peatlands each have the potential to reduce Scottish emissions in 2020 by hundreds of thousands of tonnes. Most actions to reduce emissions from land use have beneficial effects on other ecosystem services, so if we can cut emissions we can in many circumstances improve the environment. The cost of reducing emissions through land use change can be low in relation to other means of cutting emissions. The Scottish Land Use Strategy and the Ecosystem Approach it calls for, employing the concept of ecosystem services, offers a way of balancing environmental, social and economic demands on the land. Scotland's land, soils, forests and waters are all likely to be significantly altered by future climate change. Each of these components of the land-based environment offers opportunities for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. The emerging new imperatives for securing food, water and energy at a global level are equally important for Scotland, and interact with the need for environmental security and for dealing with climate change.

Palm oil has been the world's main source of oil and fats since 2004, producing over 45 million tonnes in 2009. Malaysia alone has over 4·5 million hectares planted with oil palm and, based on common practice, ∼300 palm fronds are pruned per hectare per year. This agricultural waste is currently either being used as roughage feed or, more frequently, being left between rows of palm trees to prevent soil erosion, or for nutrient recycling purposes. This paper proposes an alternative use for palm frond as a source of biochar. A traditional method commonly use by gardeners in Malaysia to improve soil fertility was used to produce the biochar. A shallow earth pit was dug in the ground for the carbonisation process. The process is described and the impact of carbonisation on the earth wall is analysed and presented. The process was later re-assessed by using TGA-FTIR. Most of the hemicelluloses had fully disintegrated, but the depolymerisation of the cellulose was still incomplete at the carbonisation temperature. Most of the lignin aromatic structure was still present in the biochar. The carbonisation process was repeated in the laboratory and biochar was characterised by using BET, SEM and FTIR. An adsorption isotherm study was conducted and the experimental data were fitted to the Langmuir model. The model predicted Pb2+ adsorption rates of 83·3 mg/g, Cu2+ 41·4 mg/g, Ni2+ 13·0 mg/g and Zn2+ 19·7 mg/g.

The paraphyletic genus ‘Paleorhinus’ is understood currently as a cosmopolitan phytosaur taxon from the Late Triassic. There is no consensus regarding the number of species of ‘Paleorhinus,’ with multiple species and genera synonymised into a single genus or even a single species at various points in its published history. The taxonomy is confounded by historical descriptions without the benefit of comparisons to more recently collected specimens, emphasis on plesiomorphic cranial morphology as diagnostic features of the genus, and lack of cladistic analyses. When included in a recent explicitly cladistic phylogenetic analysis, the holotype of ‘Paleorhinus’ scurriensis (TTU P-00539) was found to be the earliest-branching phytosaur with respect to other North American specimens previously referred to ‘Paleorhinus,’ and is generically distinct from Paleorhinus. ‘Paleorhinus’ scurriensis differs from all known phytosaurs in five unambiguous characters: basitubera widely separated mediolaterally; ridge present on lateral surface of jugal; thickened shelf present along posteroventral edge of expanded pterygoid-quadrate wing; ‘septomaxillae’ separated and excluded from internarial septum; and nasal swelling present posterior to posterior borders of nares. This detailed morphological description of an early-branching phytosaur taxon is a first step towards resolving long-standing issues surrounding specific anatomical features and relationships among early members of the clade.

The genus Machaeroprosopus has long been considered invalid because the type specimen of the Late Triassic phytosaur species, M. validus, has been lost. Re-examination of the primary literature regarding the establishment of the Late Triassic phytosaur genus Machaeroprosopus demonstrates that M. buceros is the correct type species, not M. validus. Thus, the genus level name Machaeroprosopus has priority over the genera Pseudopalatus and Arribasuchus and all nominal species should be reassigned. Reassignment of these species to Machaeroprosopus satisfies the requirements of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) and preserves historical context. The name Pseudopalatinae is retained as the valid clade name for these phytosaurs because its usage falls outside of the ICZN.

In view of the challenge posed by climate change and the need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, The Royal Society of Edinburgh Inquiry (2011) examined the barriers making it difficult for Scotland to change to a low-carbon society. The single most important finding is that, whilst widely desired, change is held back by the lack of coherence and integration of policy at different levels of governance. There is activity at the level of the EU, UK Government, Scottish Government, local authorities, local communities, households and civil society, but there is often a disconnection between policies at different levels. This impedes progress and also leads to mistrust among the general public. This paper brings together the background to ten primary recommendations featured in the Inquiry addressing the principal barriers. Above all, it is important to integrate the activities within city regions and to exploit opportunities in local communities. Reflecting on the Inquiry findings, we stress the economic, social and environmental opportunities to be gained from a low-carbon society and outline the step changes that need to take place within governance, city regions and local authorities and civil society.