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2022 results in Cambridge Elements

Page 90 of 102

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities
  • Why Engaging the Full Complexity of Social Identities is Critical to Addressing Disparities
  • Tiffany N. Brannon, Peter H. Fisher, Abigail J. Greydanus
  • Published online:
    14 September 2020
    Print publication:
    08 October 2020
  • Social disparities tied to social group membership(s) are prevalent and persistent within mainstream institutions (e.g., schools/workplaces). Accordingly, psychological science has harnessed selves - which are malleable and meaningfully shaped by social group membership(s) - as solutions to inequality. We propose and review evidence that theoretical and applied impacts of leveraging 'selves as solutions' can be furthered through the use of a stigma and strengths framework. Specifically, this framework conceptualizes selves in their fuller complexity, allowing the same social group membership to be associated with stigma, risk, and devaluation as well as strengths, resilience, and pride. We provide evidence that by enacting policies and practices that (a) reduce/minimize stigma and (b) recognize/include strengths, mainstream institutions can more fully mitigate social disparities tied to inclusion, achievement and well-being. Using social groups that vary in status/power we examine implications of this framework including the potential to foster positive, recursive, and intergroup impacts on social inequalities.
Earth History of Oxygen and the iprOxy

Earth History of Oxygen and the iprOxy
  • Zunli Lu, Wanyi Lu, Rosalind E. M. Rickaby, Ellen Thomas
  • Published online:
    11 September 2020
    Print publication:
    08 October 2020
  • How oxygen levels in Earth's atmosphere and oceans evolved has always been a central question in Earth System Science. Researchers have developed numerous tracers to tackle this question, utilizing geochemical characteristics of different elements. Iodine incorporated in calcium carbonate (including biogenic) minerals, reported as I/Ca, is a proxy for dissolved oxygen in seawater. Here we review the rationale behind this proxy, its recent applications and some potential future research directions.
About Shakespeare

About Shakespeare
  • Bodies, Spaces and Texts
  • Robert Shaughnessy
  • Published online:
    09 September 2020
    Print publication:
    01 October 2020
  • This Element addresses the question of what Shakespeare in contemporary performance is about, and whether it really is, as it may claim to be, about Shakespeare. Far from charting a smooth journey from page to stage, the work of making Shakespeare into performances often involves deflection, evasion and circumnavigation. Drawing upon the work of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Shakespeare's Globe and the Schaubühne Berlin, About Shakespeare examines theatrical bodies, the spaces inhabited by actors and audiences, and the texts that circulate around and between them.
Multimodal News Analysis across Cultures

Multimodal News Analysis across Cultures
  • Helen Caple, Changpeng Huan, Monika Bednarek
  • Published online:
    02 September 2020
    Print publication:
    17 September 2020
  • Corpus-based discourse analysts are becoming increasingly interested in the incorporation of non-linguistic data, for example through corpus-assisted multimodal discourse analysis. This Element applies this new approach in relation to how news values are discursively constructed through language and photographs. Using case studies of news from China and Australia, the Element presents a cross-linguistic comparison of news values in national day reporting. Discursive news values analysis (DNVA) has so far been mainly applied to English-language data. This Element offers a new investigation of Chinese DNVA and provides momentum to scholars around the world who are already adopting DNVA to their local contexts. With its focus on national days across two very different cultures, the Element also contributes to research on national identity and cross-linguistic corpus linguistics.
Generative Second Language Acquisition

Generative Second Language Acquisition
  • Roumyana Slabakova, Tania Leal, Amber Dudley, Micah Stack
  • Published online:
    31 August 2020
    Print publication:
    24 September 2020
  • Most human beings grow up speaking more than one language; a lot of us also acquire an additional language or languages other than our mother tongue. This Element in the Second Language Acquisition series investigates the human capacity to learn additional languages later in life and introduces the seminal processes involved in this acquisition. The authors discuss how to analyze learner data and what the findings tell us about language learning; critically assessing a leading theory of how adults learn a second language: Generative SLA. This theory describes both universal innate knowledge and individual experiences as crucial for language acquisition. This Element makes the relevant connections between first and second language acquisition and explores whether they are fundamentally similar processes. Slabakova et al. provide fascinating pedagogical questions that encourage students and teachers to reflect upon the experiences of second language learners.
Moore's Ethics

Moore's Ethics
  • William H. Shaw
  • Published online:
    29 August 2020
    Print publication:
    24 September 2020
  • This Element critically surveys the full range of G. E. Moore's ethical thought, including: (1) his rejection of naturalism in favor of the view that 'good' designates a simple, indefinable property, which cannot be identified with or reduced to any other property; (2) his understanding of intrinsic value, his doctrine of organic wholes, his repudiation of hedonism, and his substantive account of the most important goods and evils; and (3) his critique of egoism and subjectivism and his elaboration of a non-hedonistic variant of utilitarianism that, among other things, creatively blends aspects of act- and rule-oriented versions of that theory.
Thomas Reid on the Ethical Life

Thomas Reid on the Ethical Life
  • Terence Cuneo
  • Published online:
    28 August 2020
    Print publication:
    24 September 2020
  • This Element presents the rudiments of Thomas Reid's agency-centered ethical theory. According to this theory, an ethical theory must address three primary questions. What is it to be an agent? What is ethical reality like, such that agents could know it? And how can agents respond to ethical reality, commit themselves to being regulated by it, and act well in doing so? Reid's answers to these questions are wide-ranging, borrowing from the rational intuitionist, sentimentalist, Aristotelian, and Protestant natural law traditions. This Element explores how Reid blends together these influences, how he might respond to concerns raised by rival traditions, and specifies what distinguishes his approach from those of other modern philosophers.
Tools for Strategy

Tools for Strategy
  • A Starter Kit for Academics and Practitioners
  • Henri Hakala, Tero Vuorinen
  • Published online:
    28 August 2020
    Print publication:
    24 September 2020
  • This Element discusses the concept and applications of strategy tools. Strategy tools are frameworks, techniques, and methods that help individuals and organizations to create their strategies. After a brief overview of different ideas on strategy and strategic thinking, we move on to define and discuss what strategy tools are and elaborate on the promise and perils of using them to implement strategic management. We review the most commonly used, classic tools and techniques, but also less well-known tools of the strategy trade, as proposed by scholars writing in the leading strategy journals. We conclude by offering suggestions on how to improve strategic design and the effectiveness of the resultant strategy through the selective use of the most appropriate tools. Overall, this Element provides a quick overview of the tools that are available to those tasked with creating organizational strategies and making strategic decisions.
Crime and Punishment in Anglo-Saxon England

Crime and Punishment in Anglo-Saxon England
  • Andrew Rabin
  • Published online:
    21 August 2020
    Print publication:
    24 September 2020
  • Arguably, more legal texts survive from pre-Conquest England than from any other early medieval European community. The corpus includes roughly seventy royal law-codes, to which can be added well over a thousand charters, writs, and wills, as well as numerous political tracts, formularies, rituals, and homilies derived from legal sources. These texts offer valuable insight into early English concepts of royal authority and political identity. They reveal both the capacities and limits of the king's regulatory power, and in so doing, provide crucial evidence for the process by which disparate kingdoms gradually merged to become a unified English state. More broadly, pre-Norman legal texts shed light on the various ways in which cultural norms were established, enforced, and, in many cases, challenged. And perhaps most importantly, they provide unparalleled insight into the experiences of Anglo-Saxon England's diverse inhabitants, both those who enforced the law and those subject to it.
Crossmodal Attention Applied

Crossmodal Attention Applied
  • Lessons for Driving
  • Charles Spence, Salvador Soto-Faraco
  • Published online:
    17 August 2020
    Print publication:
    10 September 2020
  • Cognitive neuroscientists have started to uncover the neural substrates, systems, and mechanisms enabling us to prioritize the processing of certain sensory information over other, currently less-relevant, inputs. However, there is still a large gap between the knowledge generated in the laboratory and its application to real-life problems of attention as when, for example, interface operators are multi-tasking. In this Element, laboratory studies on crossmodal attention (both behavioural/psychophysical and cognitive neuroscience) are situated within the applied context of driving. We contrast the often idiosyncratic conditions favoured by much of the laboratory research, typically using a few popular paradigms involving simplified experimental conditions, with the noisy, multisensory, real-world environments filled with complex, intrinsically-meaningful stimuli. By drawing attention to the differences between basic and applied studies in the context of driving, we highlight a number of important issues and neglected areas of research as far as the study of crossmodal attention is concerned.
Ethical Subjectivism and Expressivism

Ethical Subjectivism and Expressivism
  • Neil Sinclair
  • Published online:
    14 August 2020
    Print publication:
    10 September 2020
  • Ethical subjectivists hold that moral judgements are descriptions of our attitudes. Expressivists hold that they are expressions of our attitudes. These views cook with the same ingredients – the natural world, and our reactions to it – and have similar attractions. This Element assesses each of them by considering whether they can accommodate three central features of moral practice: the practicality of moral judgements, the phenomenon of moral disagreement, and the mind-independence of some moral truths. In the process, several different versions of subjectivism are distinguished (simple, communal, idealising, and normative) and key expressivist notions such as 'moral attitudes' and 'expression' are examined. Different meanings of 'subjective' and 'relative' are examined and it is considered whether subjectivism and expressivism make ethics 'subjective' or 'relative' in each of these senses.
Divine Ideas

Divine Ideas
  • Thomas M. Ward
  • Published online:
    13 August 2020
    Print publication:
    03 September 2020
  • This Element defends a version of the classical theory of divine ideas, the containment exemplarist theory of divine ideas. The classical theory holds that God has ideas of all possible creatures, that these ideas partially explain why God's creation of the world is a rational and free personal action, and that God does not depend on anything external to himself for having the ideas he has. The containment exemplarist version of the classical theory holds that God's own nature is the exemplar of all possible creatures, and therefore that God's ideas of possible creatures are in some sense ideas of himself. Containment exemplarism offers a monotheism fit for metaphysics, insofar as it is coherent, simple, and explanatorily powerful; and offers a metaphysics fit for monotheism, insofar as it leaves God truly worthy of the unconditional worship which Christians, along with Jews and Muslims, aspire to offer to God.
Advances in Retirement Investing

Advances in Retirement Investing
  • Lionel Martellini, Vincent Milhau
  • Published online:
    12 August 2020
    Print publication:
    10 September 2020
  • To supplement replacement income provided by Social Security and employer­sponsored pension plans, individuals need to rely on their own saving and investment choices during accumulation. Once retired, they must also decide at which rate to spend their savings, with the usual dilemma between present and future consumption in mind. This Element explains how financial engineering and risk management techniques can help them in these complex decisions. First, it introduces 'retirement bonds', or retirement bond replicating portfolios, that provide stable and predictable replacement income during the decumulation period. Second, it describes investment strategies that combine the retirement bond with an efficient performance­seeking portfolio so as to reduce uncertainty over the future amount of income while offering upside potential. Finally, strategies using risk insurance techniques are proposed to secure minimum levels of replacement income while giving the possibility of reaching higher levels of income.
Implicit Language Aptitude

Implicit Language Aptitude
  • Gisela Granena
  • Published online:
    07 August 2020
    Print publication:
    06 August 2020
  • It is a well-known fact that some adult second language learners learn more rapidly and/or to a higher level of proficiency than others. Some of these individual differences have been linked to differences in cognitive and perceptual abilities under the umbrella term of 'language aptitude'. The notion of language aptitude has undergone recent developments, one of which is the proposal that language aptitude includes cognitive abilities that involve implicit processes and that are advantageous in learning a language without awareness. This Element defines implicit language aptitude, examines tasks that can be used to measure implicit language aptitude, and provides an overview of relevant research in this area.
Monotheism and Religious Diversity

Monotheism and Religious Diversity
  • Roger Trigg
  • Published online:
    07 August 2020
    Print publication:
    03 September 2020
  • If there is one God, why are there so many religions? Might all be false? Some revert to a relativism that allows different 'truth's' for different people, but this is incoherent. This Element argues that monotheism has provided the basis for a belief in objective truth. Human understanding is fallible and partial, but without the idea of one God, there is no foundation for a belief in one reality or a common human nature. The shadow of monotheism lies over our understanding of science, and of morality.
Monotheism and Hope in God

Monotheism and Hope in God
  • William J. Wainwright
  • Published online:
    05 August 2020
    Print publication:
    03 September 2020
  • This Element examines aspects of monotheism and hope. Distinguishing monotheism from various forms of nontheistic religions, it explores how God transcends the terms used to describe the religious ultimate. The discussion then turns to the nature of hope and examines how the concept has been used by Augustine, Aquinas, Kierkegaard, and Moltmann, among others. The Christian tradition to which these monotheists belong associates hope and faith with love. In the final section, Wainwright shows the varieties of this kind of love in Islam, Christianity, and theistic Hinduism, and defends the sort of love valorized by them against some charges against it. He examines why the loves prized in these traditions are imperfect because their adherents invariably believe that the love that they cherish is superior to that cherished by others.
Attentional Selection

Attentional Selection
  • Top-Down, Bottom-Up and History-Based Biases
  • Jan Theeuwes, Michel Failing
  • Published online:
    05 August 2020
    Print publication:
    03 September 2020
  • In this Element, a framework is proposed in which it is assumed that visual selection is the result of the interaction between top-down, bottom-up and selection-history factors. The Element discusses top-down attentional engagement and suppression, bottom-up selection by abrupt onsets and static singletons as well as lingering biases due to selection-history entailing priming, reward and statistical learning. We present an integrated framework in which biased competition among these three factors drives attention in a winner-take-all-fashion. We speculate which brain areas are likely to be involved and how signals representing these three factors feed into the priority map which ultimately determines selection.
Dutch Book Arguments

Dutch Book Arguments
  • Richard Pettigrew
  • Published online:
    31 July 2020
    Print publication:
    17 September 2020
  • Our beliefs come in degrees. I'm 70% confident it will rain tomorrow, and 0.001% sure my lottery ticket will win. What's more, we think these degrees of belief should abide by certain principles if they are to be rational. For instance, you shouldn't believe that a person's taller than 6ft more strongly than you believe that they're taller than 5ft, since the former entails the latter. In Dutch Book arguments, we try to establish the principles of rationality for degrees of belief by appealing to their role in guiding decisions. In particular, we show that degrees of belief that don't satisfy the principles will always guide action in some way that is bad or undesirable. In this Element, we present Dutch Book arguments for the principles of Probabilism, Conditionalization, and the Reflection Principle, among others, and we formulate and consider the most serious objections to them.
Defence Economics

Defence Economics
  • Achievements and Challenges
  • Keith Hartley
  • Published online:
    31 July 2020
    Print publication:
    20 August 2020
  • This Element introduces students, policy-makers, politicians, governments and business-people to this new discipline within economics. It presents the recent history of the subject and its range of coverage. Traditional topics covered include models of arms races, alliances, procurement and contracting, as well as personnel policies, industrial policies and disarmament. Newer areas covered include terrorism and the economics of war and conflict. A non-technical approach is used and the material will be accessible to both economists and general readers.
Strategy Consulting

Strategy Consulting
  • Jeroen Kraaijenbrink
  • Published online:
    30 July 2020
    Print publication:
    27 August 2020
  • Strategy consulting is one of the most highly respected and at the same time deeply detested jobs on this planet. Despite all the attention and controversy, though, there is surprisingly little written about it specifically. To address this void, this Element provides a comprehensive overview of this fascinating and emerging profession. Relying on existing research and the author's practical experience, it describes what strategy consulting is, where it comes from, how to effectively practice it and where to take it into the future. Taking the position of the individual strategy consultant, it offers an insightful perspective that is useful for scholars, students, consultants and clients of strategy consulting. In doing so it moves away from the dominant corporate practice of analytical strategy consulting. Instead, it offers an idealized whole-brain and whole-person view on what strategy consulting could and should be like in order to fully live up its promise as a profession contributing to society.

Page 90 of 102