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2022 results in Cambridge Elements

Page 87 of 102

Digital Innovations in European Archaeology

Digital Innovations in European Archaeology
  • Kevin Garstki
  • Published online:
    16 November 2020
    Print publication:
    10 December 2020
  • European archaeologists in the last two decades have worked to integrate a wide range of emerging digital tools to enhance the recording, analysis, and dissemination of archaeological data. These techniques have expanded and altered the data collected by archaeologists as well as their interpretations. At the same time archaeologists have expanded the capabilities of using these data on a large scale, across platforms, regions, and time periods, utilising new and existing digital research infrastructures to enhance the scale of data used for archaeological interpretations. This Element discusses some of the most recent, innovative uses of these techniques in European archaeology at different stages of archaeological work. In addition to providing an overview of some of these techniques, it critically assesses these approaches and outlines the recent challenges to the discipline posed by self-reflexive use of these tools and advocacy for their open use in cultural heritage preservation and public engagement.
Global Spacetime Structure

Global Spacetime Structure
  • JB Manchak
  • Published online:
    13 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • This exploration of the global structure of spacetime within the context of general relativity examines the causal and singular structures of spacetime, revealing some of the curious possibilities that are compatible with the theory, such as 'time travel' and 'holes' of various types. Investigations into the epistemic and modal structures of spacetime highlight the difficulties in ruling out such possibilities, unlikely as they may seem at first. The upshot seems to be that what counts as a 'physically reasonable' spacetime structure in modern physics is far from clear.
Ecosemiotics

Ecosemiotics
  • The Study of Signs in Changing Ecologies
  • Timo Maran
  • Published online:
    13 November 2020
    Print publication:
    10 December 2020
  • This Element provides an accessible introduction to ecosemiotics and demonstrates its pertinence for the study of today's unstable culture-nature relations. Ecosemiotics can be defined as the study of sign processes responsible for ecological phenomena. The arguments in this Element are developed in three steps that take inspiration from both humanities and biological sciences: 1) Showing the diversity, reach and effects of sign-mediated relations in the natural environment from the level of a single individual up the functioning of the ecosystem. 2) Demonstrating numerous ways in which prelinguistic semiotic relations are part of culture and identifying detrimental environmental effects that self-contained and purely symbol-based sign systems, texts and discourses bring along. 3) Demonstrating how ecosemiotic analysis centred on models and modelling can effectively map relations between texts and the natural environment, or the lack thereof, and how this methodology can be used artistically to initiate environmentally friendly cultural forms and practices.
Kant and Global Distributive Justice

Kant and Global Distributive Justice
  • Sylvie Loriaux
  • Published online:
    13 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • This Element argues that although Kant's political thought does not tackle issues of global poverty and inequality head on, it nonetheless offers important conceptual and normative resources to think of our global socioeconomic duties. It delves into the Kantian duty to enter a rightful condition beyond the state and shows that a proper understanding of this duty not only leads us to acknowledge a duty of right to assist states that are unable to fulfil the core functions of a state, but also provides valuable hints at what just transnational trade relations and a just regulation of immigration should look like.
How Local Governments Govern Culture War Conflicts

How Local Governments Govern Culture War Conflicts
  • Mark Chou, Rachel Busbridge
  • Published online:
    12 November 2020
    Print publication:
    10 December 2020
  • While local governments have traditionally been thought relatively powerless and unpolitical, this has been rapidly changing. Recent years have seen local governments jump headfirst into a range of so-called culture war conflicts like those concerning LGBTI rights, refugee protection, and climate change. Using the Australia Day and Columbus Day controversies as case studies, this Element rejuvenates research on how local governments respond to culture war conflicts, documenting new fronts in the culture wars as well as the changing face of local government. In doing this, this Element extends foundational research by advancing four new categories of responsiveness that scholars and practitioners can employ to better understand the varied roles local governments play in contentious culture war conflicts.
Metamaterials and Negative Refraction

Metamaterials and Negative Refraction
  • Rujiang Li, Zuojia Wang, Hongsheng Chen
  • Published online:
    11 November 2020
    Print publication:
    10 December 2020
  • The discovery of artificial electromagnetic materials, called metamaterials, not only redefines the human perception of constitutive parameters in electromagnetic theory, but also brings forward new phenomena, such as negative refraction. We provide a comprehensive introduction to the unique characteristics of metamaterials, starting with Maxwell's equations and the kDB coordinate system, and moving through to theoretical concepts and design principles of negative refraction in metamaterials. For each kind of media, including isotropic, anisotropic and bianisotropic metamaterials, we discuss the characteristic waves and their properties. We show examples of negative refraction both theoretically and experimentally.
Reading Spaces in South Africa, 1850–1920s

Reading Spaces in South Africa, 1850–1920s
  • Archie L. Dick
  • Published online:
    10 November 2020
    Print publication:
    26 November 2020
  • Voluntary societies and government initiatives stimulated the growth of reading communities in South Africa in the second half of the nineteenth century. A system of Parliamentary grants to establish public libraries in country towns and villages nurtured a lively reading culture. A condition was that the library should be open free-of-charge to the general public. This became one more reading space, and others included book societies, reading societies, literary societies, debating societies, mechanics institutes, and mutual improvement societies. This Element explains how reading communities used these spaces to promote cultural and literary development in a unique ethos of improvement, and to raise political awareness in South Africa's colonial transition to a Union government and racial segregation.
Environmental Recourse at the Multilateral Development Banks

Environmental Recourse at the Multilateral Development Banks
  • Susan Park
  • Published online:
    09 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • Global governance now provides people with recourse for harm through International Grievance Mechanisms, such as the Independent Accountability Mechanisms of the Multilateral Development Banks. Yet little is known about how such mechanisms work. This Element examines how IGMs provide recourse for infringements of three procedural environmental rights: access to information, access to participation, and access to justice in environmental matters, as well as environmental protections drawn from the United Nations Guiding Principles and the World Bank's protection standards. A content analysis of 394 original IAM claims details how people invoke these rights. The sections then unpack how the IAMs provide community engagement through 'problem solving', and 'compliance investigations' that identify whether the harm resulted from the MDBs. Using a database of all known submissions to the IAMs (1,052 claims from 1994 to mid-2019), this Element demonstrate how the IAMs enable people to air their grievances, without necessarily solving their problems.
The Acquisition of Aspect in a Second Language

The Acquisition of Aspect in a Second Language
  • Stefano Rastelli
  • Published online:
    09 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • The acquisition of the aspect is a central area in Second Language Acquisition research, the subject of hundreds of papers and dozens of edited volumes, monographs and special issues. This introduction provides the reader not only with a concise and plain presentation of the main hypotheses advanced in the past, but also with an overview of contemporary research. Stefano Rastelli shows how comparison of behavioural (production-comprehension), processing and statistical data is improving - and partially changing - our understanding of how learners acquire the aspectual distinctions of the target-language.
Herbert Eimert and the Darmstadt School

Herbert Eimert and the Darmstadt School
  • The Consolidation of the Avant-Garde
  • Max Erwin
  • Published online:
    09 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • After 1951, the discourse surrounding both the Darmstadt courses in particular and European New Music more broadly shifted away from a dodecaphonic vocabulary in favour of concepts such as 'punctual music', 'post-Webern music', and 'static music', all collected under the newly-christened unity of the Darmstadt School. This study proposes a genealogy of the Darmstadt School through the institutional influence and writings of Herbert Eimert. It demonstrates that Eimert's understanding of music history - whereby technical procedures are universalised as the acme of historical progress - was adopted as the institutional discourse of New Music in Europe, and remains central to both textbook and critical scholarly accounts which attempt to make sense of the avant-garde after World War II.
Ontological Arguments

Ontological Arguments
  • Tyron Goldschmidt
  • Published online:
    06 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • Proving the existence of God is a perennial philosophical ambition. An armchair proof would be the jackpot. Ontological arguments promise as much. This Element studies the most famous ontological arguments from Anselm, Descartes, Plantinga, and others besides. While the verdict is that ontological arguments don't work, they get us entangled in fun philosophical puzzles, from philosophy of religion to philosophy of language, from metaphysics to ethics, and beyond.
Latin America Global Insertion, Energy Transition, and Sustainable Development

Latin America Global Insertion, Energy Transition, and Sustainable Development
  • Leonardo E. Stanley
  • Published online:
    06 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • This Element focuses on Latin American fossil fuel producer countries and how they are dealing with the transition towards a greener energy matrix. The challenges involved are multiple and ethical in substance. In particular, a worldwide expansion in clean energies would reduce climate change, physical risks. A rapid transition, however, induces the irruption of a new (financial) risk. The energy transition, in addition, could be thought of as a new arena for political disputes. Finally, it evaluates the relevance of monetary policy and financial regulation to tackle the issue from a macro perspective. Energy transition, however, have also long-term but uncertain consequences on the national economy. Henceforth, and in order to minimize risks, a long-term, strategic vision of the challenge confronted by the region becomes mandatory. To tackle all these problems, this Element profits from contributions of different disciplines.
Securing American Elections

Securing American Elections
  • How Data-Driven Election Monitoring Can Improve Our Democracy
  • R. Michael Alvarez, Nicholas Adams-Cohen, Seo-young Silvia Kim, Yimeng Li
  • Published online:
    05 November 2020
    Print publication:
    26 November 2020
  • The integrity of democratic elections, both in the United States and abroad, is an important problem. In this Element, we present a data-driven approach that evaluates the performance of the administration of a democratic election, before, during, and after Election Day. We show that this data-driven method can help to improve confidence in the integrity of American elections.
Forces of Reproduction

Forces of Reproduction
  • Notes for a Counter-Hegemonic Anthropocene
  • Stefania Barca
  • Published online:
    03 November 2020
    Print publication:
    26 November 2020
  • The concept of Anthropocene has been incorporated within a hegemonic narrative that represents 'Man' as the dominant geological force of our epoch, emphasizing the destruction and salvation power of industrial technologies. This Element develops a counter-hegemonic narrative based on the perspective of earthcare labour – or the 'forces of reproduction'. It brings to the fore the historical agency of reproductive and subsistence workers as those subjects that, through both daily practices and organized political action, take care of the biophysical conditions for human reproduction, thus keeping the world alive. Adopting a narrative justice approach, and placing feminist political ecology right at the core of its critique of the Anthropocene storyline, this Element offers a novel and timely contribution to the environmental humanities.
Citations in Interdisciplinary Research Articles

Citations in Interdisciplinary Research Articles
  • Natalia Muguiro
  • Published online:
    02 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • This Element explores interdisciplinarity in academic writing. It describes the ways in which disciplines interact when forming interdisciplinary fields and how language reflects (and is reflected by) these interactions. Specifically, bibliographical citations are investigated in corpora of research articles from three interdisciplines: Educational Neuroscience, Economic History, and Science and Technology Studies, as well as the single-domain disciplines from which they are derived. Comparisons are carried out between the interdisciplinary fields and between those fields and their related single-domain disciplines. The study combines analysis of quantitative data and qualitative interpretation by means of close reading. It concludes that bibliographical citations constitute a viable tool to explore interdisciplinary writing in the fields explored. The Element demonstrates that it is possible to describe epistemologically distinct types of interdisciplinarity by means of linguistic evidence.
Wittgenstein on Aspect Perception

Wittgenstein on Aspect Perception
  • Avner Baz
  • Published online:
    02 November 2020
    Print publication:
    26 November 2020
  • The perception of what he calls 'aspects' preoccupied Wittgenstein and gave him considerable trouble in his final years. The Wittgensteinian aspect defies any number of traditional philosophical dichotomies: the aspect is neither subjective (inner, metaphysically private) nor objective; it presents perceivable unity and sense that are (arguably) not (yet) conceptual; it is 'subject to the will', but at the same time is normally taken to be genuinely revelatory of the object perceived under it. This Element begins with a grammatical and phenomenological characterization of Wittgensteinian 'aspects'. It then challenges two widespread ideas: that aspects are to be identified with concepts; and that aspect perception has a continuous version that is characteristic of (normal) human perception. It concludes by proposing that aspect perception brings to light the distinction between the world as perceived and the world as objectively construed, and the role we play in the constitution of the former.
American Affective Polarization in Comparative Perspective

American Affective Polarization in Comparative Perspective
  • Noam Gidron, James Adams, Will Horne
  • Published online:
    02 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • American political observers express increasing concern about affective polarization, i.e., partisans' resentment toward political opponents. We advance debates about America's partisan divisions by comparing affective polarization in the US over the past 25 years with affective polarization in 19 other western publics. We conclude that American affective polarization is not extreme in comparative perspective, although Americans' dislike of partisan opponents has increased more rapidly since the mid-1990s than in most other Western publics. We then show that affective polarization is more intense when unemployment and inequality are high; when political elites clash over cultural issues such as immigration and national identity; and in countries with majoritarian electoral institutions. Our findings situate American partisan resentment and hostility in comparative perspective, and illuminate correlates of affective polarization that are difficult to detect when examining the American case in isolation.
Patrimonialities

Patrimonialities
  • Heritage vs. Property
  • Valdimar Tr. Hafstein, Martin Skrydstrup
  • Published online:
    02 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • With empirical touchstones from Europe, North America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, the authors argue that heritage and property represent different approaches to subject formation, produce distinct bodies of expertise, and belong to different rationalities of government in a global patrimonial field: that cultural property is a technology of sovereignty, part of the order of the modern liberal state, but cultural heritage a technology of reformation that cultivates responsible subjects and entangles them in networks of expertise and management. While particular case trajectories may shift back and forth from rights-based claims and resolutions under the sign of cultural property to ethical claims and solutions under the sign of cultural heritage, the authors contend that there is significant analytical purchase to be gained from their distinction. Using a critical, comparative approach, they make the case for a historically grounded and theoretically informed understanding of the difference between the two terms.
The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood

The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood
  • Robert J. Sternberg
  • Published online:
    02 November 2020
    Print publication:
    03 December 2020
  • In this Element, I first introduce intelligence in terms of historical definitions. I show that intelligence, as conceived even by the originators of the first intelligence tests, Alfred Binet and David Wechsler, is a much broader construct than just scores on narrow tests of intelligence and their proxies. I then review the major approaches to understanding intelligence and its development: the psychometric (test-based), cognitive and neurocognitive (intelligence as a set of brain-based cognitive representations and processes), systems, cultural, and developmental. These approaches, taken together, present a much more complex portrait of intelligence and its development than the one that would be ascertained just from scores on intelligence tests. Finally, I draw some take-away conclusions.
Computational Fluid Dynamics and its Applications in Echinoderm Palaeobiology

Computational Fluid Dynamics and its Applications in Echinoderm Palaeobiology
  • Imran A. Rahman
  • Published online:
    30 October 2020
    Print publication:
    19 November 2020
  • Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which involves using computers to simulate fluid flow, is emerging as a powerful approach for elucidating the palaeobiology of ancient organisms. Here, Imran A. Rahman describes its applications for studying fossil echinoderms. When properly configured, CFD simulations can be used to test functional hypotheses in extinct species, informing on aspects such as feeding and stability. They also show great promise for addressing ecological questions related to the interaction between organisms and their environment. CFD has the potential to become an important tool in echinoderm palaeobiology over the coming years.

Page 87 of 102