Welcome to the World of Machine Learning!

In this ever-evolving era of technology, the field of machine learning (ML) stands at the forefront of innovation, promising unprecedented insights and solutions to complex problems. This textbook provides a comprehensive understanding of the theoretical foundations of ML algorithms, coupled with practical implementation using Python, designed to be a companion for both beginners venturing into the field and seasoned practitioners seeking to deepen their understanding.

Why Machine Learning?

ML is not just a technical endeavor; it is a transformational force shaping the future of how we interact with data. From enhancing search engines and revolutionizing social media to powering self-driving cars and advancing artificial intelligence (AI), the applications of ML are boundless. ML has paved the way for developing sophisticated chatbots, generative AI models, and AI copilots. This book aims to demystify the intricate concepts of ML, making them accessible to learners of all backgrounds.

What This Book Offers

• - Foundations: We begin with the fundamentals, laying a solid groundwork to help you grasp the core concepts of ML.

• - “Learning by Doing” Approach: This book adopts a “learning by doing” approach, offering step-by-step coding instructions for various ML techniques. The aim is to empower you with the knowledge and skills to implement these principles effectively.

• - Real-World Applications: Understanding theory is essential, but applying it to real-world scenarios is where the true power of ML unfolds. This book bridges theory and application, ensuring a holistic learning experience.

For Whom This Book Is Intended

Whether you are a student exploring the realms of ML for the first time, a data professional aiming to expand your skill set, or a business leader seeking insights into how ML can elevate your organization, this book is crafted with you in mind.

How to Use This Book

Feel free to navigate the chapters based on your familiarity with the subject. If you’re a beginner, start from the beginning, and if you’re seeking advanced knowledge, dive into specific sections of interest. Explore GitHub resources that provide access to datasets, sample code, and examples used in this book for hands-on learning. For enhanced visual understanding, this book is complemented by an online video course available at learncompscience.com, allowing you to reinforce your knowledge through engaging video sessions.

19.1 Building Image Classifier with CNN

The convolutional neural network (CNN) is the perfect choice for building an image classifier system. In this chapter, we will implement various CNN classifiers in Python by considering various case studies.

19.2 Dog–Cat Classifier

Consider an image classification problem that involves identifying photos as either containing a cat or dog. Our task is to develop a CNN model that can identify the object in the image as a dog or cat. The CNN model will be trained on a dataset of images containing a dog or cat, and then this trained model will be used for classification. Once the model is built, it can be used as a template to build other models for predicting the class of any image on the trained dataset. It means we can use the same model to classify the tumors by training them on medical images.

Preparing the Dataset

To build a dog–cat classifier, we will use 11000 manually annotated photos of dogs and cats, where 5500 photos are of dogs, and the remaining ones are of cats. This is the partial dataset that has been created from the dogs-vs-cats dataset available at Kaggle. The link for this dataset is given below.

https://www.kaggle.com/competitions/dogs-vs-cats/data

This full dataset contains 37500 images (24000 in the train and 13500 in the test folders), which must be manually segregated into dog and cat folders. Since the dataset is huge and segregation is time-consuming, we took 10000 images (5000 images of dogs and 5000 images of cats) in the train folder and 1000 images in the test folder (500 images of dogs and 500 images of cats).

12.1 Introduction to Clustering

In machine learning (ML), labeling the data is one of the crucial tasks. But sometimes, we do not have the labeled data. Even though the data is not labeled, we can still analyze it using clustering techniques. As you know, algorithms in ML are broadly classified as supervised and unsupervised techniques. In the case of supervised learning, the input data points/examples are labeled, while in unsupervised learning, the input data points/examples are not labeled. Cluster analysis, also called clustering, comes under unsupervised learning. Here, the input data points are not labeled. Clustering is the most popular technique in unsupervised learning.

Clustering is defined as grouping the input data points into various clusters/groups based on their similarity.

A cluster contains objects that are more similar to each other. In other words, during cluster analysis, the data is grouped into classes or clusters, so that records within a cluster (intra-cluster) have high similarity with one another but have high dissimilarities in comparison to objects in other clusters (inter-cluster).

The clustering algorithm aims to minimize the intra-cluster distance and maximize the inter-cluster distance, as shown in Figure 12.1.

An example of clustering is shown in Figure 12.2. Here, records in the input have different shapes. Here, we only have the input data without any label of shape. After applying the clustering algorithm, they were classified into three types of clusters. Here, the clustering algorithm considers the dimensions of the object and its color as the input features. Records whose features are highly similar are gathered to form a single cluster. In this case, we get three clusters representing three types of records, i.e., it clusters rhombus, circle, and triangle separately, as shown in Figure 12.2.

18.1 Image Recognition

Using a convolutional neural network (CNN), technological development in image recognition has revolutionized far beyond our imagination. Let us consider the comic scene shown in Figure 18.1, as it provides interesting insights into the development of image recognition and depicts a decade-back possible scenario. Here, a manager asks his computer programmer to “Develop an app which can check whether the user is in a national park or not, when he clicks some photo!” Being an easy and feasible task, the computer programmer responds that the task is merely of few hours. But, the manager's curiosity goes up, and he asks the programmer further to check whether the image is of a bird or not? Surprisingly, the programmer responds, “I need a research team and five years for this task.”

This surprised the manager as he expected it to be an easy task. But the programmer who has a knack in the field knows that it is one of the complex problems to be addressed in computer science.

In the last decade, we have provided solutions to many complex problems in the field of computers. But, for the last 50 years, we have been struggling to solve the problems in image recognition. However, thanks to the efforts of researchers and computer scientists across the globe, we can solve these problems now. Even a three-year-old child can identify a bird's photo, but identifying a way by which computers can do the same task was not a cake-walk; hence, it took almost 50 years!

We have finally found a promising approach for object recognition using deep CNN in recent years. In this chapter, we will discuss the working principle and concepts of CNN, a deep neural network approach to solving the problem of image recognition.

7.1 Introduction to Multiple Linear Regression

In simple linear regression, we have one dependent variable and only one independent variable. As we discussed in the previous chapter, the stipend of a research scholar is dependent on his years of research experience.

But most of the time, the dependent variable is influenced by more than one independent variable. When the dependent variable depends on more than one independent variable, it is known as multiple linear regression.

Figure 7.1 indicates the difference between simple and multiple regressions mathematically.

In Figure 7.1(b), b0 is the constant while x1, x2, and xn are independent variables on which the dependent variable y depends. You can point out that mathematically multiple linear regression is derived similarly to simple linear regression. The major difference is that in multiple linear regression, we have multiple independent variables, as it is from x1 to xn instead of only one independent variable, x1, in the case of simple linear regression. It is also important to note that we have b1 to bn as the coefficients of these independent variables, respectively.

The price prediction of a house can be viewed as a multiple linear regression problem, where factors such as plot size, number of bedrooms, and location play a significant role in determining the price. Unlike simple linear regression, which relies solely on plot size, multiple linear regression considers various features to accurately estimate the house price.

Let us understand this concept further with a real-life example. Consider a case where a venture capitalist has hired a data scientist to analyze different companies’ data to predict their profit. Identifying the company having maximum profit will help the venture capitalist to select the company he could invest in the near future to earn maximum profit.

21.1 Introduction

In recent years, a recurrent neural network (RNN) has become one of the most prominent neural networks for predicting values based on time series data. The time series is a collection of data points ordered over even intervals in time. Hence, time series analysis is useful when we want to study some parameter changes over time. In RNNs, the output from the previous steps is fed into the input of the current state. Thus, RNN could predict the next letter of any word, the next word of the sentence, and the diesel prices, stock prices, or weather. In all these tasks, there is a need to remember the previous values, and consequently, the output at t+1 will be dependent on the output at the time t interval. In this chapter, we will implement an RNN to predict the trend of diesel prices.

We will implement an RNN through long short-term memory (LSTM) units. We will use stacked layers of LSTM, as RNNs suffer from the issue of vanishing gradient and exploding gradient. Whereas LSTM encompasses gates through which they can regulate the flow of information. Because of this added advantage, LSTMs are commonly used for implementing RNNs.

21.2 Implementation of RNN in Python

Problem Statement: In this experiment, our primary objective is to predict the trend of diesel prices in Delhi, i.e., we wish to predict that the diesel prices in Delhi will witness an upward or downward trend for the near future. It is difficult to predict the exact future price of diesel on a particular day, as our dataset for this problem is quite small. Hence, using an RNN model (implemented through stacked layers of LSTM), we will predict an approximate value of future diesel prices in Delhi, which helps to predict the trend accurately (upward or downward).

On 6 December 1992, following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in India, communal riots broke out in several parts of the country. Mumbai witnessed a horrific bout of communal riots in the months between December 1992 and January 1993, which saw enormous violence against Muslim minorities in the city. This violence was accompanied by the Hindu right-wing political party Shiv Sena's attempts to reconfigure the city as a sacred Hindu space. According to official statistics, the death toll exceeded 800, and 1,50,000 residents, mostly Muslims, left the city. About 100, 000 Muslim refugees took shelter in camps constructed in neighbourhoods that were predominantly populated by Muslims in central Mumbai. The role of the police in the riots was widely criticised by civil society actors and later by an investigating committee as they were accused of being mute spectators and at times active participants in the excessive violence against Muslims, especially in the city's slums. The riots transformed the social geography of Mumbai drastically. Mumbai was a city with a high proportion of ethnically mixed neighbourhoods with the Muslim population spread across the city. After the riots, the Muslim population became far more concentrated in central Mumbai and in slums in north Mumbai. This violent spatial reorganisation of the city because of a concerted attack against Muslim minorities catapulted several Muslim women into the public sphere. They were involved in the rehabilitation of riot victims. Subsequently, they began participating in several initiatives that spoke to concerns of gender justice within the family and ultimately became a part of a project for addressing gender equality in the domain of Muslim family law.

11.1 Introduction to Classification Algorithms and Steps for Its Implementation

In this chapter, we will implement several classification algorithms of machine learning (ML) in Python. For the same, we will consider the Purchase Alexa Dataset, which contains multiple users’ information and their decision to buy Alexa in terms of “YES” or “NO”. The dataset features several independent columns and a labeled class attribute. Our main objective is to predict whether a user will buy Alexa or not (class attribute). The class predictions are based on the input attributes composed of several independent columns.

To better understand, we will use the same dataset, i.e., Purchase Alexa Dataset, to implement all the classification algorithms such as decision tree, random forest, naive Bayes, k-NN, logistic regression, and support vector machine (SVM). This will allow us to compare the results and the working of different classification algorithms. We will start by creating a pre-processing data template for our dataset, which shall remain common for all the classification models. Later, we will implement a classification model for each algorithm mentioned above. Then the performance of the model under study would be analyzed using the confusion matrix and the performance metrics. Finally, the training and testing results would be visualized graphically to better understand the working of classifiers.

A stepwise approach to implementing a classification model in Python is as follows:

• Step 1: Importing libraries—Importing of libraries is required to perform various functions and steps related to data pre-processing and building the classifiers.

• Step 2: Loading dataset—Download and load the desired dataset to Spyder.

• Step 3: Splitting the dataset into training and testing datasets—Splitting the loaded dataset into training and testing subsets.

In this chapter, we are going to implement the simple linear regression in Python. To implement this concept, we will analyze how the stipend of a researcher is related to their years of research experience. Our aim is to predict the stipend of the researcher based on his/her research experience.

Problem Statement and Dataset

To perform this task, we will consider a dataset consisting of two attributes: ResearchExperience and Stipend. There are 30 observations in this dataset to draw the correlation between the research experience and their corresponding stipend. A research institute aims to find this correlation between research experience and the stipend. This will assist the management in providing an appropriate stipend to new research scholars based on their years of research experience, rather than deciding randomly. The obvious thing is that the stipend is directly proportional to the research experience. The higher the experience, the more will be the stipend. We will use a simple linear regression model to solve this problem.

Let us quickly refresh our concepts of a simple linear regression model. We know that simple linear regression can best fit the straight line to generate a relationship between the research experience and the stipend. Though the dataset is quite simple, it has a great business value to it, as the model created will help the institute predict the stipend of the researcher based on their experience. Therefore, using this model, the stipend of the new researchers can be easily predicted, and this would also acknowledge the transparency in the management. Here, ResearchExperience (independent variable) will be our X and act as horizontal axis. In contrast, the Stipend (variable to be predicted is the dependent variable) will be Y and act as vertical axis, as shown in Figure 6.1.

In the ever-evolving landscape of technology, machine learning (ML) has emerged as a transformative force, reshaping industries and empowering innovations across the globe. Its profound impact on diverse fields, from healthcare and finance to autonomous vehicles and natural language processing, makes it an indispensable skill for the modern-day learner and practitioner.

Machine Learning with Python: Principles and Practical Techniques is a comprehensive and timely written book that navigates through the intricacies of this fascinating field. Written by Dr Parteek Bhatia, an expert in the domain, this book aims to provide a solid foundation for understanding the principles of ML and equipping readers with the practical techniques to tackle real-world challenges.

As we embark on this enlightening journey, the author starts by laying a solid groundwork, demystifying the fundamental concepts of ML. He skilfully explains the various learning paradigms, such as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning, and elucidates the key algorithms underpinning each. From linear regression and decision trees to support vector machines and deep neural networks, the book offers a comprehensive exposition that caters to readers with varying levels of expertise.

A distinguishing feature of this book is its strong emphasis on Python, a versatile, opensource, and widely used programming language in the realm of ML. By utilizing Python, readers are empowered with a practical and accessible toolset, facilitating the implementation and experimentation of various algorithms discussed in the text. The authors provide hands-on examples and code snippets, fostering a learning-by-doing approach that ensures readers can confidently harness the power of ML in their projects.

Whether you are a seasoned data scientist seeking to enhance your skillset or a curious beginner eager to dive into the world of ML, this book offers something for everyone. Its clear and concise presentation, enriched with illustrative examples and practical exercises, makes it an invaluable resource for self-study or classroom instruction.

Machine Learning with Python: Principles and Practical Techniques is a must-have addition to the library of any aspiring or seasoned ML practitioner. Its comprehensive coverage of key concepts, coupled with the practical implementation guidance using Python, makes it a timeless reference in the fast-paced landscape of ML.

8.1 Introduction to Multiple Linear Regression

In the previous chapter, we covered the concepts of multiple linear regression and polynomial linear regression. There, we defined regression as the prediction of continuous values; and in the case of multiple linear regression, there are multiple independent variables and a single dependent variable. If Y is a dependent variable whose value depends on X1, X2, X3,…, Xn independent variables, then mathematically, multiple linear regression is represented by Equation (8.1).

where b0 is the constant and b1, b2, …, bn are the coefficients. Each of the coefficients represents the change in the dependent variable due to the per unit change in the independent variable value. Let us move ahead and implement a multiple linear regression model in Python.

8.1.1 Understanding Dataset and Problem Statement

Let us consider the dataset of 50 advertisement agencies in India. A few instances of this dataset are shown in Table 8.1. The goal is to predict the agency's profit based on different parameters – Print Media Expenses, Social Media Expenses, Outdoor AD Expenses, and City or Location. All the figures mentioned in this dataset is in INR (Indian rupees).

The dataset used in this chapter is derived from the SuperDataScience dataset by Kirill Eremenko and his team. A big thanks to SuperDataScience for granting us permission to use and reference the dataset in this book. You can find it at https://www.superdatascience.com/pages/machine-learning.

Machine learning (ML) is one of the most upcoming knowledge areas transforming the world. It is a dynamic and transformative field that has the potential to reshape the way we interact with technology and the world around us. In the book, Machine Learning with Python: Principles and Practical Techniques, author Parteek Bhatia offers an insightful and hands-on approach to demystifying this complex subject.

In a world where ML plays an increasingly central role in our lives, understanding its principles and practical applications is essential. In this book, numerous algorithms are explained in detail, assuming no previous knowledge of readers. All these algorithms are widely used in the practicing world and research areas. This book is an invaluable resource for beginners and those looking to deepen their knowledge in the field.

Parteek Bhatia takes the reader on an engaging journey, starting from the basics and gradually building up to more advanced concepts. What sets this book apart is its focus on practicality. The book covers various ML techniques, from data pre-processing and regression to classification, clustering, and association mining. Each concept is illuminated with detailed Python implementations, allowing you to see firsthand how these algorithms work and how they can be applied to real-world problems. It also delves into more advanced topics like artificial neural networks, deep learning, convolutional neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and genetic algorithms. This comprehensive approach equips you with the tools and knowledge to tackle complex ML challenges.

Parteek Bhatia's passion for the subject and dedication to making it accessible shines through every chapter. This book is not just a collection of information; it is a learning adventure. It takes the reader from a beginner to a confident practitioner, ready to take on the exciting and everevolving world of ML.

Whether you are a student, a professional, or simply someone eager to explore the possibilities of ML, this book will be your trusted guide. Machine Learning with Python is your gateway to unlocking the potential of this fascinating field.

I commend Parteek Bhatia for his commitment to creating this educational masterpiece. As you embark on your journey through the captivating realm of ML, I encourage you to embrace the concepts, put them into practice, and let your curiosity and creativity flourish.

Mumtaz Shaikh, an activist of the BMMA, conducted a range of workshops and training sessions with other working-class Muslim women in her neighbourhood. In these sessions, she spoke about the difficulties that Muslim women faced when they approached the police for redressal of grievances such as domestic violence. In her discussion of these difficulties, she invoked the rights (huq) of Muslim women in terms of the rights of a collective, communal entity. For Shaikh, rights became meaningful in these moments of collective communal mobilisation for rights.

In a similar training session, Noorjehan Safia Niaz, a founder member of the BMMA, spoke of the right to religious freedom for Muslim women. She construed the right as the freedom that allowed women to carry out the duty towards individual and collective self-improvement. The right to religious freedom was exercised through political action. Activists understood the right as the right to collectively challenge and reconstitute religious authority in spaces of adjudication of Muslim law on marriage, divorce and maintenance. This was not merely a form of individual freedom that enabled women's autonomy. Collective organising to challenge religious authority in communities was considered a pious obligation and a duty for women who wanted to construct a more just world in accordance with the principles of the Quran. In the activism of the BMMA, an ethic of duty reconstituted liberal freedoms such as the right to religious freedoms in moments of negotiation with Muslim family law and minority rights.

This chapter builds on participant observation in the workshops on the Quran and the Constitution conducted by members of the BMMA. It traces how discourses on marriage and divorce rights within the framework of Muslim Personal Law interact with the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, especially the right to religious freedom and how transnational ideas of Islamic feminist ethics shape these interactions.