The ultimate goal of poultry hatching is to increase the hatching rate and to produce healthy hatched birds. In the incubation process, temperature is the most important factor for the egg hatching rate, the growth performance and offspring phenotype. This not only affects the early development of the offspring, but also has a continued influence on the physical characteristics of the birds, such as final body weight and meat quality. This article reviews the importance of incubation temperature on offspring phenotype, sex differentiation, organism immunity and the development of muscle fibre in poultry.

The differentiation of the two sexes in the gametocytogenesis of Plasmodium falciparum was investigated using a plaque assay and antibodies specific for various stages and sexes of gametocytes. Immunofluorescence assays on plaques of cultured parasites grown in monolayers of erythrocytes revealed that the merozoites released from a single sexually-committed schizont became either all male or all female gametocytes. Thus, the commitment of this species to differentiate into one sex or the other is likely to occur prior to the nuclear division of the sexually-committed schizont. The characteristic female-biased gametocyte sex ratio observed for many Plasmodium species is manifested in P. falciparum by a greater percentage of schizonts that produce female gametocytes (67–71%) than those that yield males. From the plaque assay, it was determined that the number of gametocytes produced per sexually-committed schizont was similar for both sexes, indicating that allocation of parasite resources was equal for each sex of gametocyte. The timing of sexual differentiation and features of the gametocyte sex ratio is discussed in relation to previous observations on P. falciparum and related malaria parasites.

Oncorhynchus mykiss alevins originating from a monosex female population were treated with methyltestosterone incorporated in the diet (0.5 or 3 mg/kg) for 60 or 90 days from the beginning of first feeding. At sexual maturity the percentage masculinization achieved was high (89-98%) whatever the concentration or duration of treatment. However, the hormone concentration was the major factor in determining the frequency of functional males obtained. Of the 2-year-old neomales produced by the treatment with 0.5 mg/kg diet for 60 days 82% were able to emit their sperm under abdominal pressure compared to only 36% of those produced with 3 mg for 60 days. The increase in the duration of treatment also resulted in a decrease in the number of functional males from 82% (0.5 mg/60 days) to 72.6% (0.5 mg/90 days) and from 35.6% (3 mg/60 days) to 19.2% (3 mg/90 days). It is therefore recommended to use a low dose of hormone (0.5 mg/kg) for only 60 days to get a high proportion of functional males.