The aim of this paper is to bring attention to weed ecology research that is taking place in an unexpected discipline: archaeology. While archaeobotanists (archaeologists or botanists who specialize in archaeological plant remains) have been accessing literature in weed ecology for decades and applying the findings to their own studies, their results are almost exclusively published in archaeological journals such as the Journal of Archaeological Science or Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. For this reason, their work is underutilized by weed ecologists, especially those who have an interest in historical weed ecology. Archaeobotanical research could help weed scientists understand the long-term effects of agricultural practices on weed communities and predict the potential impacts of climate change. This paper begins with a brief review of the history of archaeobotany as a discipline, then describes ways in which weed ecology is applied in archaeobotany, including Functional Interpretation of Botanical Surveys (FIBS). Finally, we present opportunities for future collaboration between archaeobotanists and weed scientists.

Incorporation of cover crop residue into the soil has been suggested as a means for reducing weed seedbanks. To explore this hypothesis, we buried mesh bags of seeds mixed with sand at 15-cm depth in late fall in plots that had been planted with rye (Secale cereale L.) or hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.) or left unplanted. Separate bags contained either velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medik.), giant foxtail (Setaria faberi Herrm.), Powell amaranth (Amaranthus powellii S. Watson), or common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.). The experiment used a randomized complete block design with five replications, and enough bags were buried to allow a final recovery in each of the following three springs. Each spring, bags were exhumed, and seeds were either counted and tested for viability or mixed with chopped cover crop material or simply stirred for control bags, and the material was reburied. The experiment was completed twice with initial burials in fall of 2011 and 2013. Rye had no consistent effect on persistence of seeds of any of the species. For two observation intervals, rye increased persistence of a species; for another two intervals, it decreased persistence relative to the control; but mostly rye did not affect persistence. Hairy vetch decreased persistence of C. album and A. powellii in both runs of the experiment but had no effect on persistence of A. theophrasti and S. faberi. Germination of the first two species is promoted by nitrate, whereas A. theophrasti germination is not sensitive to nitrate, and S. faberi is only rarely nitrate sensitive. We suggest that nitrate released during decomposition of hairy vetch may have promoted fatal germination of C. album and A. powellii. Incorporation of legume cover crops like hairy vetch may provide a means for decreasing the seedbanks of the many weed species whose germination is promoted by nitrate. The lack of any reduction of A. theophrasti and S. faberi seed persistence in response to hairy vetch and the inconsistent and mostly negligible effect of rye indicate that a general increase in readily decomposable organic matter through incorporation of cover crops may be ineffective at reducing weed seedbanks.

Vinasse, a liquid fermentation residual of bio-ethanol production that also contains solid particles in suspension, is commonly used as a soil amendment. Previous studies reported vinasse reduced seed germination and seedling establishment, suggesting herbicidal activity. Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine whether vinasse herbicidal activity is present in the liquid or solid phase, and whether it affects plants during seed early germination (i.e., imbibition), late germination (i.e., embryo growth and radicle protrusion), or seedling growth. Most of the herbicidal activity was associated with the liquid phase, and for most species, seed viability was predominantly affected after the imbibition phase. Susceptibility to vinasse was species dependent. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) germination was <8% when seeds were imbibed and germinated in vinasse solutions or imbibed in water and germinated in vinasse. Conversely, imbibing lettuce seeds in vinasse solutions and germinating them in water did not change their germination in comparison with seeds imbibed and germinated in water (>80% germination). Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and sicklepod [Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby] germination decreased 10% and 35% when seeds were imbibed and germinated in vinasse, respectively, while Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) and southern crabgrass [Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler] germination decreased >90%. All evaluated species reduced radicle growth as vinasse concentration increased. Filtered liquid vinasse with reduced concentration of salt and ionic compounds inhibited radicle growth similarly to unfiltered vinasse, indicating that the herbicidal activity was not due to osmotic effects and was likely present in the organic liquid phase. Amaranthus palmeri, S. obtusifolia, and D. ciliaris increased the proportion of dormant seed more than 2-fold when they were imbibed or imbibed and germinated in vinasse solutions. Vinasse might be useful for weed management to reduce germinable weed seedbanks by increasing seedling mortality and seed dormancy either by properly timing of its application as a soil amendment or by purifying herbicidal compounds and using them directly for weed control.

Current United Kingdom (UK) government policy on pesticides is aimed at minimizing rather than arbitrarily reducing usage. It is to be achieved through a rigorous Approvals process, the setting of statutory maximum residue limits, regular monitoring, legislation on the safe use of pesticides on farms, and a core-funded research program on topics such as improved forecasting of pest infestations, more effective application techniques, alternative control strategies, integrated pest management and sustainable farming systems. Over the longer term these measures are expected to bring about substantial real decreases in pesticide usage, without the need to impose arbitrary reduction targets, such as have been implemented by several other European countries. Reductions in the usage of particular chemicals will also occur as a result of the implementation of European Community (EC) environmental legislation on pesticide levels in ground and drinking water and pesticide discharges into the North Sea. With herbicides, the tonnage of active ingredient applied in the UK declined substantially during the 1980s, due mainly to the increased use of products which were more biologically active at lower dosage rates than those they replaced. The actual percentage of crops sprayed remained at 95 to 100. Further reductions are likely in the 1990s, enhanced by factors such as dose-cutting by farmers in response to economic rather than environmental pressures and an increase in set-aside. Weed scientists are currently studying the long-term effects on weed population dynamics of reduced herbicide inputs in cereals, set-aside management, and more environmentally friendly, lower input rotations, as part of a wider program of research designed to provide government with scientifically based information upon which to decide future policies.

A soil sampler, elutriator, and associated sample flushing device were designed and constructed for an intensive study of weed seedbanks. This equipment was used in 1993 to collect and process 4980 soil samples. The sampler was durable, core size was consistent, and sampling was efficient. Cores were approximately 200 cm3 and two people could take 120 cores/h. The elutriator separated weed seeds from 36 of these cores at a time. Washing required 60 to 75 min depending on soil texture. Seeds as small as 0.3 mm in diam were recovered and almost 100% of the seeds were recovered from samples spiked with barnyardgrass, redroot pigweed, velvetleaf, and witchgrass. The flushing device was used to transfer sample contents from strainers of the elutriator to propyltex bags for drying and storing. Equipment like this, plus improved technology for identifying and counting seeds, is needed to make weed seedbank studies more feasible.

Medusahead is an invasive annual grass that, once established, severely affects range-land productivity and stability. Medusahead builds large seedbanks in the litter and on the soil surface. Effective weed control of medusahead involves either inhibiting germination from the seedbank, eliminating the seedbank, or enhancing germination so that plants are available for control. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of nitrogen enrichment, immobilization, and nitrification inhibition treatments in the field on the size and germination status of medusahead seedbanks. The germination status of medusahead seeds in seedbanks was determined by periodically collecting field samples of surface soil and litter and bioassaying them in greenhouse emergence tests. Control seedbanks had increased seedling emergence with KNO3 or GA3 enrichment of the bioassay substrate. The combination of these two materials increased emergence. Nitrogen enrichment increased seedling establishment in the field. Carbon enrichment in the field decreased seedling establishment and increased medusahead seeds in seedbanks. Nitrapyrin treatment decreased medusahead in the field similar to carbon enrichment. In comparison to the control or other treatments, GA3 enrichment was not as effective in increasing emergence from nitrapyrin-treated bioassay samples. The combination of carbon and nitrapyrin treatments was very effective in eliminating medusahead emergence in the field, but in wetter years, it never completely eliminated medusahead seedling recruitment and subsequent reproduction. These treatments have promise for influencing succession in medusahead infestations if an adapted perennial species, capable of competing under low nitrogen levels, becomes available.