This study employed an alternative method for assessing serotonergic function to further evaluate our finding that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA) in depressed suicide attempters with a lifetime history of higher lethality suicide attempts is significantly lower compared to depressed patients who have a history of low lethality suicide attempts.

We used dl-fenfluramine (60 mg) as a neuroendocrine probe to examine the serotonin system in 41 in-patients with a DSM–III–R major depressive episode, divided into two groups on the basis of a lifetime history of high or low lethality suicide attempts. Fenfluramine challenge test outcome was defined as the maximum prolactin response in the five hours following fenfluramine.

Patients with a history of a higher lethality suicide attempt had a significantly lower prolactin response to fenfluramine, even when controlling for cortisol, age, sex, weight, comorbid cluster B personality disorder, pharmacokinetic and menstrual cycle effects.

The data provide further support for the hypothesis that serotonin dysfunction is associated with more lethal suicide attempts, and suggests that higher lethality suicide attempters or failed suicides resemble completed suicides both behaviourally and biochemically.

The aim was to evaluate long-term outcome of DSM–III–R panic disorder at a mean of 5.3 years following a controlled trial of treatment that included antidepressants and behavioural counselling.

Sixty-eight (86%) subjects were evaluated by lengthy research interview.

Thirty-four per cent recovered and remained well, 46% were minimally impaired and 20% had persistent panic disorder of whom half remained significantly impaired. Anxious–fearful personality dysfunction was the most important predictor of poor outcome, followed by poor clinical status at discharge and inability at baseline to recall vividly the initial panic attack. Those who dropped out from the original trial did badly.

Complete recovery can occur even after many years of severe illness in a large minority of subjects who receive both antidepressants and behavioural counselling in the acute stage of treatment. The comparative prognostic value of personality, severity and chronicity need to be more fully addressed in future studies.

The psychosocial correlates of depression during pregnancy were explored.

Pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic of a general hospital (n=1329) received a set of questionnaires including Zung's Self-Rating Depression Score (SDS). SDS high scorers (>49) (the cases: n=179) were compared with low scorers (<38) (the controls; n=343).

The cases were characterised by: first delivery; more nausea, vomiting, and anorexia; more menstrual pains and premenstrual irritability; early paternal loss; lower maternal care and higher paternal overprotection; higher public self-consciousness score; more smoking and use of medication in pregnancy; unwanted pregnancy; negative psychological response to the pregnancy by the woman and husband; poor intimacy by the husband; and having remarried.

Depression in early pregnancy is determined mainly by psychosocial factors.

Education groups for people with schizophrenia have tended to concentrate on compliance with medication. This study examines impact on social behaviour and quality of life.

A catchment-wide service was set up for community-based patients. Patients who indicated an interest in education groups were randomly allocated to either an education group or a waiting list control group. Those who attended groups were compared with the control group.

About one-quarter of community-based patients showed interest in attending education groups. Those who attended showed no change in mental state or compliance with medication (already high) but significant gains in quality of life, social functioning and social networks.

For patients who choose to attend education groups significant gains in social functioning and quality of life are possible without specific skills training.

We wished to investigate central serotonergic function in untreated schizophrenia.

Thirteen drug-naive, DSM–III–R schizophrenic patients were compared with sex, race, age, weight and menstrual phase matched controls. Plasma prolactin and cortisol responses to a specific serotonergic probe, d-fenfluramine, were measured along with BPRS ratings.

Prolactin responses were enhanced in schizophrenic patients compared to controls (P < 0.05) and were correlated positively with BPRS items for depression, anxiety and guilt. Baseline cortisol was also raised in those with schizophrenia (P < 0.001).

Central serotonergic tone may be raised in acute, drug-naive schizophrenia and may be associated with the presence of affective symptomatology.

The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale retains its primacy in research. There have been recent important critiques. It is clear that instructions provided by its author are widely overlooked.

A survey of the present use of the HDRS was conducted by inspection of five major journals publishing studies in the field of psychiatry. Note was especially made of whether a recognised version of the Scale was quoted; also of whether authors had selected specific scores on one or other of the versions to indicate a criterion for inclusion of a subject in a study, and likewise whether a specific score had been selected as an indication of recovery following some procedure or treatment.

One hundred and fourteen articles were reviewed in which 71 had used a depression scale. This was the HDRS in 66% of the studies. There was considerable evidence that the instruction that the HDRS was only to be used in situations where the patient had received a diagnosis of a primary depressive illness had been ignored. There was considerable degree of arbitrary selection of Scale scores.

The survey causes concern about the methodology of much research in the field of assessment of severity of psychiatric disorder. The rationale of assessment by the rating scale method is considered and suggestion made for improvement in research practice.

An excess of late winter and early spring births in schizophrenia has been repeatedly demonstrated. Previous evidence has suggested that the risk for schizophrenia may differ in relatives of schizophrenic probands born in this high risk period v. at other times of the year.

In an epidemiologically based family study conducted in the west of Ireland, we examined the relationship between season of birth in schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum probands and the risk for schizophrenia and related disorders in first-degree relatives. Risk was assessed using the Cox proportional hazard method. We examined four birth seasons previously shown to significantly predict risk for schizophrenia.

Neither the risk for schizophrenia nor that for schizophrenia spectrum disorders in relatives was significantly associated with season of birth in probands.

Season of birth does not, in this sample, identify schizophrenic probands with particularly high or low familial vulnerability to illness.

Studies of schizophrenics with persecutory delusions have shown cognitive biases in subjects who are deluded. It has been suggested that their delusions defend against depression. This study challenges the assumption that delusional disorder (DD) patients are covertly depressed.

Clinical and demographic data and responses to questionnaires designed to assess schizotypy, depression, dysfunctional attitudes, attributional and attention biases were collected from 29 patients satisfying DSM–III–R criteria for DD. These were compared with 20 matched normal controls and results from published studies of schizophrenics.

DD subjects did not show abnormal levels of overt or covert depression or schizotypy. They showed high levels of dysfunctional attitudes (P < 0.0001), a distinctive attributional style (P = 0.01), and increased attention to threat-related stimuli (P = 0.01).

DD is a distinct disorder predicated upon sensitivity to threat and biases of attention and attribution. These findings may have implications for the cognitive therapy of these disorders.

We assessed associations of mood at 5–6 weeks postpartum with peripartum saliva cortisol and progesterone profiles.

A prospective study involved 120 primiparous women free of major marital, socioeconomic and health problems, who collected saliva twice daily from 2 weeks before delivery to day 35 postpartum. This allowed intensive characterisation of cortisol and progesterone profiles. At the conclusion of the study, mood was assessed according to standard criteria.

Seven women developed major depression according to DSM–III–R criteria No associations emerged between progesterone and mood at 5 to 6 weeks. Lower levels of evening cortisol in the immediate peripartum period, were associated with postnatal depression.

The study provides no support for the treatment strategy of progesterone augmentation following delivery, as a prophylactic against postnatal depression. The HPA axis and its associations with postnatal mood warrants further investigation.

Long-stay patients with learning disabilities (n=214) were assessed in hospital and 12 and 24 months after discharge in order to examine the effects of relocation.

Each resident acted as his/her own control in a prospective repeated-measures design. Skills and behavioural problems were assessed by keyworkers. Self-perceived quality of life was obtained during interviews with researchers who also completed an environmental checklist of the residents' accommodation.

There was little or no change in peoples low pre-discharge skill levels. Certain aspects of problem behaviour improved after 12 months, although socially unacceptable behaviour increased slightly. People were less depressed (P ⩽ 0.01) 12 months after discharge (n=119) and were more satisfied (P ⩽ 0.05) with their new ‘homes’ (n=108). There were few changes in the pattern of activities or the social networks of people 12 months later. Little or no further change in outcomes was reported 24 months after discharge.

The implementation of the deinstitutionalisation policy in Northern Ireland has been limited by the predominance of residential and nursing homes and the lack of ‘ordinary’ accommodation. There is a need for purchasers and providers to give more attention to ways in which the principles of normalisation could be incorporated in the process of contracting and delivering services.

Cognitive impairment without dementia is commonly observed in ageing populations. The present study aims to describe types of impairment and evolution over a one-year period.

Three hundred and ninety-seven normal French elderly persons demonstrating recent, observable change in cognitive performance were examined annually using a computerised cognitive examination.

Five subtypes were differentiated by cluster analysis. Two of the groups were predicted by logistic regression to be at high risk of senile dementia. Of 16 incident cases of senile dementia diagnosed in the following year, 13 were found to have derived from these two groups. The typology was also found to be useful in the description of age-associated memory impairment.

Subclinical cognitive impairment was found to not constitute a unitary phenomenon and heterogeneous subgroups could be differentiated. The concept of ‘normality’ in elderly cohorts is reconsidered in the light of these findings.

The suicide rate in young men, but not young women, is rising. One possible route to suicide prevention is through general practice but recent evidence suggests that young suicides are not likely to attend GP surgeries prior to death.

We carried out a retrospective examination of general practice contacts by a 2-year sample of suicides under 35 years of age in the 12 health districts of Greater Manchester. In the 61 young suicides who were known to attend a GP in the three months before death, we recorded (a) the number of consultations each week in the three months before suicide; (b) sex differences in rates of and reasons for consultation; (c) frequency of recorded risk assessment at the last GP visit before suicide.

The number of GP visits increased significantly before death. A monthly increase was more evident in males, but the increase in the week before death was more marked in females. There was no sex difference in the rate of GP visits before suicide; both sexes were most likely to attend for psychological reasons. Significant suicide risk had been noted at none of the final GP visits.

There remains a potential role for GPs in preventing suicides by young people of both sexes. The recent increase in suicide by young males does not appear to be related to a lower rate of GP attendance before death. Future training of GPs in this area should focus on risk assessment.

We examined relationships among positive, negative, and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia and major depression with psychosis.

Patients with schizophrenia (n = 17) and major depression and psychotic features (n = 25), with no prior psychopharmacologic treatment were assessed on scales measuring positive psychotic, negative, and depressive symptoms.

Analyses revealed that depressive symptoms positively correlated with anhedonia/asociality and avolition/apathy in both patient groups. Positive psychotic symptoms significantly correlated with depressive symptoms in the schizophrenic group.

Several specific symptoms used in defining both depressive and negative syndrome constructs appear to be shared. The relationship between positive symptoms and depression in schizophrenia and not psychotic depression suggests the severity of depression may be involved in this relationship.

White matter changes, as revealed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may occur in depression and Alzheimer's disease.

T2-weighted MRI scans were performed in 39 control subjects, 61 subjects with NINCDS/ADRDA Alzheimer's disease and 60 subjects with DSM–III–R major depression. Deep white matter lesions (DWML) and periventricular lesions (PVL) were rated on a standard 0–3 scale by two radiologists blind to clinical diagnosis.

After controlling for differences in vascular risk factors and current blood pressure, DWML were significantly more common in depressed subjects and PVL in Alzheimer's disease subjects compared to controls. DWML were most common in those presenting in late life with their first ever depression and 50% of such subjects had severe (grade 3) DWML.

An association between DWML and depression and PVL and Alzheimer's disease is supported. The increase with DWML that occurs with ageing may predispose some elderly subjects to depression.

This community-based epidemiologic study of dementia in a rural population in India investigated the prevalence of various dementing disorders in the community, psychosocial correlates of the morbidity, and assessment of the risk factors associated with dementia.

A door to door survey was conducted to identify elderly people aged 60 and above. A total of 2067 elderly persons were then screened with a vernacular adaptation of the MMSE. All those who scored 23 and below had a detailed neuropsychological evaluation by CAMDEX–Section B, and the care-givers of the people with confirmed cognitive impairment were interviewed using CAMDEX–Section H to confirm the history of deterioration or impairment in social or personal functioning. In the third phase the subjects with confirmed cognitive impairment were evaluated at home as to whether they satisfied the DSM–III–R criteria for dementia. Subcategorisation of dementia was done based on ICD–10 diagnostic criteria. Five per cent of those whose screening was negative were randomly selected and evaluated during each stage.

Sixty-six cases of dementia were identified from 2067 persons aged 60 and above, a prevalence rate of 31.9 per thousand After correction this rate was 33.9 per thousand. Fifty-eight per cent of the dementia cases were diagnosed as vascular dementia and 41% satisfied the criteria for ICD–10 dementia in Alzheimer's disease. There were more women in the Alzheimer's disease group; smoking and hypertension were associated with vascular dementia while a family history of dementia was more likely in the Alzheimer's group.

Dementia is an important cause of morbidity in the geriatric population in this community, where families take responsibility for the care of relatives with dementia.

Linguistic analysis is of great potential benefit to psychiatry as a research and assessment tool, but the skill and time it demands means that it has not been widely used. This paper describes a much simplified form of syntactic analysis.

A detailed protocol for the Brief Syntactic Analysis (BSA) was written, based on earlier work by Morice and Ingram. Three psychiatrists were trained in its use, and inter-rater reliability established through independent ratings of 12 transcripts taken from a mixed group of psychiatric patients and a group of non-psychiatric controls. Concurrent reliability of the BSA against the Morice and Ingram analysis was established by comparing measures from the two methods on 16 transcripts of mixed patients.

There were high levels of agreement between the three psychiatrists and between the BSA and the Morice and Ingram analysis, although one-way ANOVA indicated that for some variables there were small but statistically significant absolute differences between the two. The reasons for this were discussed. A principal components analysis confirmed the presence of three factors corresponding closely to the three families of linguistic variables.

The results indicate that psychiatrists can be trained to use a syntactic analysis with high levels of agreement. The BSA, which takes much less time to complete, produces measures that are comparable with the original analysis from which it was derived.

The impact of community resettlement on the quality of life of people with long-term psychiatric disorders, is evaluated in a longitudinal study.

A repeated measures design was used to examine the sensitivity of an adapted version of Lehman's Quality of Life Interview in evaluating change. Completed interviews were carried out with 29 of the original cohort at one year post-discharge. The relationship between quality of life and ratings of client functioning is explored.

Significant changes in the objective quality of life indices include improved living conditions (F = 40.00, P < 0.001), higher levels of social contact (F = 29.52, P < 0.01) and increased leisure activities (F = 4.57, P < 0.05). Apart from increased satisfaction with living situation (F = 6.94, P < 0.01), there were no significant changes in the subjective indices. Ratings of psychiatric state and social functioning did not significantly correlate with global quality of life at one year post-discharge.

Concerns in relation to the sensitivity of life satisfaction ratings in evaluating programme interventions are raised.

Postnatal depression follows 10% of live births but there is little consensus on the risk factors associated with its development. Previous smaller studies have been unable to quantify the impact of independent risk factors as relative and attributable risks.

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to screen a systematic sample of 2375 women, six to eight weeks after delivery. Information on socio-demographic and obstetric variables was collected at the screening interview. The risk factors associated with high EPDS scores (>12) were determined and entered stepwise into a regression model.

Four independent variables were found to be associated with an EPDS score above this threshold. These were an unplanned pregnancy (OR 1.44); not breast-feeding (OR 1.52), and unemployment in either the mother, i.e. no job to return to following maternity leave (OR 1.56), or the head of household (OR 1.50). These four variables appeared to explain the risk associated with other risk factors.

Although a direct aetiological role for these risk factors is not certain, they may indicate strategies for the prevention of affective morbidity in postnatal women. These may include reducing unwanted pregnancy and employment for women after childbirth.