It has been my experience, and probably that of most teachers, that even advanced students who ought to know better cannot differentiate the simplest algebraic and trigonometric functions without indulging in an extravagant luxuriance of infinite series and making a number of illegitimate assumptions.

Proofs of the addition formulae for angles of any magnitudes are sometimes rendered invalid by the way in which arguments are founded on a diagram which can represent only one of the many possible cases. When the two angles under consideration are represented in the usual manner as having a common vertex, the only angles in the diagram whose values it is safe to represent by formulae, if complete generality is to be preserved, are angles having this same vertex. The introduction of other angles may be avoided by a restatement of the definitions of sine and cosine.

I Admire the ingenuity of the method by which Prof. Nanson establishes the expansions of sin x and cos x as power series in x. But I must confess that his attempt to ‘simplify’ the ‘accepted accurate’ proofs of these expansions seems to me a fundamentally mistaken one. Nor can I admit that the result is at all satisfactory ‘from the elementary didactic point of view.’ His proof is to my mind essentially an artificial verification, and altogether unnatural, in the sense that it has no place in any natural and logical way of developing the ideas which lead to the result. I speak with diffidence as one who has had far less experience of teaching than Prof. Nanson. But I am convinced that my criticism is a fair one: and I think that many of the proofs usually given, in English text-books, of many of the theorems of ‘Higher Trigonometry,’ are open to fair criticism on similar grounds, when (as is too seldom the case) they are not to be condemned for ‘hopeless complexity’ or utter lack of force.