Prosody includes the pitch, timing and loudness in speech, which can convey meaning and emotion. This study examines whether prosodic categories affect novel noun learning and whether the referent characteristic influence learning. Previous research showed that emotional prosody interfered with adults’ noun learning (West et al., 2017), but it had no effect on children (West et al., 2022). However, these researchers varied their method across ages, including animacy and complexity of the referent, and it is unclear if the results extend beyond the three emotional prosodies tested. Participants in the current set of studies heard novel words presented in five prosodic categories (within-subject) in order to learn the label for either animate or inanimate objects (between-subject). Study 1 compared inanimate objects and aliens, with better noun learning performance for inanimate objects. Study 2 compared inanimate objects with the same objects with faces added, but there was no difference in noun learning by object type. Both studies showed differences in noun learning by the prosodic category, with warning less accurate than naming. These results demonstrate how extralinguistic factors like prosody, attention and referent complexity influence noun learning.

Scalar inferences (SIs) are upper-bounding inferences associated with the use of semantically lower-bounded scalar expressions. One of the current debates regarding these inferences concerns their inferential pattern, specifically whether SIs are uniform or diverse across scales. This study follows the work on scalar diversity yet introduces two changes: First, we reexamine, from a different perspective, two structural properties of scales identified as accounting for SI diversity (boundedness and distance). Second, we analyze our data using both traditional regression analysis and complementary cluster analysis. The regression analysis demonstrates that our reexamination of the structural properties provides a more effective model, which also emphasizes the relationship between boundedness and distance. Specifically, we propose that boundedness fixes distance. The cluster analysis demonstrates two scale types: given-scales, which have an entrenched scalar construal, trigger SIs robustly; and volatile-scales, which have a fluctuant scalar construal, trigger SIs inconsistently. Building on these two scale types, we propose a necessary distinction between the conceptualization of a scale, which is diverse across different scales, and the actual derivation of the SI, which is uniform for all scales, once a scale has been construed. This distinction, we propose, explains how diversity can coexist alongside uniformity.

Age of first exposure (AoFE) is an important factor that influences the quality of L2 acquisition. This study aims to investigate the AoFE effect on the contextual learning of L2 novel words at the neural level, as measured by the N400 component from event-related potentials (ERPs). Eighty-eight participants were recruited for the experiment of L2 pseudoword learning, which includes a learning session and a testing session. The participants’ EEG data were recorded from the testing session, and the N400 effect was derived from target words that were either congruous or incongruous with the context. The linear mixed model and multiple regression model revealed a positive AoFE effect on the N400 effect in discourses that were designed for testing retrieval of episodic and semantic memory even after accounting for the variance contributed by several confounding factors. In addition to AoFE, the effects of total L2 exposure, L2 proficiency and personality on the L2 novel word learning performance indicated by the N400 effect were also confirmed in the statistical results.

Learning the meaning of a word is a difficult task due to the variety of possible referents present in the environment. Visual cues such as gestures frequently accompany speech and have the potential to reduce referential uncertainty and promote learning, but the dynamics of pointing cues and speech integration are not yet known. If word learning is influenced by when, as well as whether, a learner is directed correctly to a target, then this would suggest temporal integration of visual and speech information can affect the strength of association of word–referent mappings. Across two pre-registered studies, we tested the conditions under which pointing cues promote learning. In a cross-situational word learning paradigm, we showed that the benefit of a pointing cue was greatest when the cue preceded the speech label, rather than following the label (Study 1). In an eye-tracking study (Study 2), the early cue advantage was due to participants’ attention being directed to the referent during label utterance, and this advantage was apparent even at initial exposures of word–referent pairs. Pointing cues promote time-coupled integration of visual and auditory information that aids encoding of word–referent pairs, demonstrating the cognitive benefits of pointing cues occurring prior to speech.

Speakers of different languages follow a three-way split in how they express motion events in speech—with a greater emphasis on manner in satellite-framed languages (English), path in verb-framed languages (Turkish), and comparable expression of manner and path in equipollently-framed languages (Chinese). According to the thinking-for-speaking account, these language-specific patterns can affect speakers’ representation of motion events but only when verbalizing the event. In this study, we asked whether language might influence learning novel words, particularly when the words were accompanied with gestures. We examined effects of language type (equipollent-framed: Chinese, satellite-framed: English, verb-framed: Turkish) and modality (speech-only, gesture+speech) on learning pseudowords for motion (manner, path). Our results showed that speakers of all three languages learned pseudowords for manner and path but with lower accuracy scores and slower rates of learning by Chinese speakers. Regardless of the language they spoke, participants learned manner words more accurately than path words, but with no added benefits of instruction with gesture+speech over speech-only. Taken together, our study extends the lack of language effect on nonverbal representation of events when not speaking to the domain of novel word learning across structurally different languages.

This study aims to explore the target concepts of metonymical and metaphorical uses of ‘head’ in Jordanian Arabic (JA) compared to those used in Tunisian Arabic (TA). Extended conceptual metaphor theory (ECMT) as envisaged by Kövecses (2020, Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 18, 112–-130) is adopted as the theoretical framework. Data analysis reveals that through metonymic metaphors, the head in JA is used to profile character traits, mental faculty, cultural values and emotions. The head in JA is also capitalized upon to provide explanations of several daily life experiences. The primacy of head in JA was clear in the informants’ comprehension of the means by which embodiment provides the grounding for cognition, perception and language, which supports Gibbs’ (2014, The Bloomsbury companion to cognitive linguistics, pp. 167–184) ‘embodied metaphorical imagination’. Similarities in the cultural model of head between the two dialects were found, yet differences were also detected. In contrast to TA, the head is more productive in JA in profiling character traits and emotions. These differences were attributed to the existence of a cultural filter that has the ability to function between two cultures that belong to one matrix Arab culture and differences in experiential focus between the two examined speech communities.

The present study aimed to investigate whether contextual factors influence how a reference is processed in discourse. We used intact and violated presuppositions (PSP), triggered by a definite or indefinite noun phrase, to monitor the reference process. In one sentence set, a contextual referent was explicitly mentioned close or far from the PSP-triggering noun phrase (memory context). In another sentence set, a referent was not explicitly mentioned in the context, but an inference to a referent was either plausible or implausible due to contextual semantic relations (inference context). Participants were asked to rate the coherence of the discourse after listening to it. Our results revealed a strong influence of the temporal distance of the contextual presentation of a referent. When the referent was far in the context (memory context), PSP violations were judged to be less severe than for close referents, suggesting that they are less clearly represented in memory. Furthermore, PSP violations seemed to play a subordinate role when the semantic context provided a basis for the plausible presence of a referent (inference context). Our results suggest that discourse comprehension involves referential processes whose importance may fade with distance in memory or may be obscured by semantic contextual content.

Early research on the first language acquisition of figurative language indicated that figurative language comprehension and production skills develop relatively late, while recent studies contest this view. This study explores early production of metaphorical (e.g., shark meaning a rapacious crafty person) and metonymic (e.g., house meaning an organisation) meanings in English polysemous nouns and verbs by using the Braunwald corpus, which tracks a single child’s speech from the age of 1 year, 5 months to 7 years. We explore the initial production of these meanings, with respect to the age, order of acquisition and part of speech (noun vs. verb). Our study shows that children start using figurative meanings at a much earlier age than previously thought. In this early stage, metonymic meanings emerge earlier, while metaphorical meanings come a few months later. These findings challenge prior beliefs that children only develop figurative language skills at 3 years of age and show that it is not only the pre-figurative skills that develop early but also the production of very conventional types of figurative meaning, which might not necessarily require the completed development of the complex set of cognitive skills necessary for cross-domain comparison.

Empirical studies on bilingual children’s reference production have often focussed on comparisons with monolingual peers. In this study, we introduce the concept of ‘reference profiles’: Speakers may exhibit similar or different behaviours in reference production, independently of whether they belong to a specific group (e.g., monolinguals or bilinguals) or whether their production adheres to some norm. Thirty-seven Greek–Italian bilingual children (Mage = 9;4, range 7;10–11;6) performed narrative retelling tasks in both of their languages, as well as vocabulary tasks and various cognitive tasks. The results show that the children had a good mastery of reference (i.e., appropriately using null pronouns, full pronouns or full nouns) in both of their languages. Using cluster analyses, we identified two distinct reference profiles. Further investigation showed that these profiles differed in both their sustained attention and in the use of overspecified referring expressions in contexts where reference to the same referent was maintained. These results are interpreted in light of current cognitive theories of (bilingual) reference processing and emphasise the potential of reference profiles for the study of other domains beyond bilingual reference production.

The nature and processing of semantic illusions (SI; when speakers fail to notice an anomalous word in a sentence that is contextually perfectly aligned with world knowledge) have been largely studied during first language comprehension. Although this issue is not free of controversy, findings sustain The Node Structure Theory, according to which SI is a phonological and/or semantic priming effect which occurs due to phonological and/or semantic links existing between the correct and the anomalous word. However, the question as to whether the same underlying mechanisms can be found in bilinguals and whether the effect is modulated by age of language acquisition (AoA) and language dominance remains unexplored. The aim of this study was to examine this issue on sequential European Portuguese-German bilinguals (and their respective control groups) using a self-paced reading paradigm. The sentences’ language, AoA (early vs. late), and type of target word used (correct vs. anomalous) were manipulated. Results showed the occurrence of SI, independently of language and AoA. Therefore, findings suggest that SI occur due to a semantic overlap between critical words and are similarly processed in L1 and L2.

This study aims to determine if there are differences in color–emotion association between monolingual speakers of Spanish and Mandarin, depending on how colors are presented (verbally or visually). We tested two groups of 25 speakers of these two languages in two different tasks using the Geneva Emotion Wheel, which encompasses 20 types of emotions. In Task 1, 13 colors were presented to participants as color terms in their native language, whereas in Task 2 the same colors were presented as color patches from the Munsell chart. Participants were then asked to associate color terms or color patches to the set of emotion concepts (and intensities of emotion) in the Geneva Emotion Wheel. Overall, differences between languages were not significant, regarding either the type of emotion or individual dimensions of emotion (valence, arousal or power), although significant differences were observed for specific colors. Also, Spanish speakers tended to attribute higher intensity values and higher numbers of emotion values to colors. At the same time, speakers of both languages reacted similarly to color presentation, with color terms being associated with the same emotions as color patches, but eliciting stronger reactions with respect to intensity and the number of emotion values. Finally, we found less variability in color–emotion associations within the Spanish-speaking group. Overall, our study points to a mixed pattern of universality and culture-specificity regarding how colors are used for conveying emotions by people.

Whereas some studies suggest that ironic praise necessitates a longer processing time than ironic criticism, others posit that the two are processed at comparable speeds. We hypothesize that the presence of an echoic antecedent within the preceding context may at least partially account for these conflicting findings. To investigate this matter, we analyzed reading times and accuracy stemming from two types of contexts: echoic and non-echoic. Our results demonstrate that ironic criticism was judged to be more ironic in both echoic and non-echoic contexts, while ironic praise was rated as more ironic in an echoic context than in a non-echoic context. Additionally, echoing contexts facilitate the comprehension of ironic criticism, but cause ironic praise to be processed more slowly. There was also an observed asymmetry between the two forms of irony. Ironic criticism demonstrated high accuracy and was rated as more ironic than ironic praise. Furthermore, ironic criticism was read faster in an echoic context, whereas performance was similar in a non-echoic context for both types. These findings suggest that echoing context affects ironic criticism and ironic praise differently, implying that distinct mechanisms may be at work in understanding irony in echoic and non-echoic contexts.

Frazier and colleagues, in 2015, proposed the speech-act hypothesis as an inferentially rich pragmatic account for the interpretational flexibility of expressive adjectives (EAs) (e.g., damn, frigging). One pragmatic cue in EA interpretation proposed by Frazier and colleagues is the Culprit-Hypothesis, which predicts that the likelihood of EAs targeting the subject-referent of an utterance increases with the degree of its perceived culpability or blameworthiness in negative events. This article aims to refine the Culprit-Hypothesis by embedding it in a robust theoretical framework based on the psychological models of blame attribution and providing reliable empirical validation. Focusing on the role of intentionality, one of the major components of blame attribution, this article reports a forced-choice study investigating the influence of blameworthiness on EA interpretation. The study followed a 2$ \times $3 within-subject repeated measures design, with sentences manipulated by the factors intentionality (intentional versus unintentional versus underspecified) and EA placement (subject-internal versus object-internal) (The [damn] NOUN1 [intentionally $ \mid $ unintentionally $ \mid $ ϕ] verbs the [damn] NOUN2). Participants (n = 100) read the sentences and selected their preferred interpretation of the EA among the subject-referent, the object-referent and the event-referent. A generalized linear mixed effects model fitted to the data reveals that intentional actions are significantly more likely to result in subject-readings compared to unintentional actions, thus corroborating the Culprit-Hypothesis.

Ideophones – imitative words using the stream of speech to simulate/depict the rise and fall of sensory perceptions and emotions and temporal experiences of completiveness, instantaneousness, and repetitiveness – have been characterized as semantically empty and context-dependent. The research reported here tested a simple schematic for the semantic categories of Pastaza Kichwa ideophones by tracking neurological responses to ideophones categorized as VISUAL, MOTION, and SOUND. Seventeen native speakers of Pastaza Kichwa listened to audio clips of ideophones extracted from sentential contexts. Subjects’ neural activity was assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Results demonstrate that these posited semantic categories activate areas of the brain associated with visualization, motion, and sound processing and production, respectively. This suggests that these ideophones convey semantic information related to these concepts, independent of context. This contrasts with what would be expected by theories suggesting that ideophones on their own are semantically empty. The data give rise to questions regarding whether any language contains only sound ideophones that do not carry additional sensory information and whether ideophones in previous studies treated strictly as sound ideophones might require greater specification of their semantics, specifically from a multisensorial perspective.