Besides offset biases (such as range, the gain of range, azimuth, and elevation biases), for mobile radars, platform attitude biases (such as yaw, pitch, and roll biases) induced by the accumulated errors of the Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) of the Inertial Navigation System (INS) can also influence radar measurements. Both kinds of biases are coupled. Based on the analyses of the coupling influences and the observability of 3-D radars’ error registration model, in the article, an Attitude Bias Conversion Model (ABCM) based on Square Root Unscented Kalman Filter (SRUKF) is proposed. ABCM can estimate 3-D radars’ absolute offset biases under the influences of platform attitude biases. It converts platform attitude biases into radar measurement errors, by which the target East-North-Up (ENU) coordinates can be obtained from radar measurements directly without using the rotation transformation, which was usually used in the transition from platform frame to ENU considering attitude biases. In addition, SRUKF can avoid the inaccurate estimations caused by linearization, and it can weaken the adverse influences of the poor attitude bias estimation results in the application of ABCM. Theoretical derivations and simulation results show that 1) ABCM-SRUKF can improve elevation bias estimate accuracy to about 0·8 degree in the mean square error sense; 2) linearization is not the main reason for poor estimation of attitude biases; and 3) unobservability is the main reason.

The next generation Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), such as Galileo and Global Positioning System (GPS) modernization, will use signals with equal code and bit periods, resulting in a potential bit sign transition in each primary code period of the received signal segments. A bit sign transition occurring within an integration period usually causes a splitting of the Cross Ambiguity Function (CAF) main peak into two smaller side lobes along the Doppler shift axis in the search space and it may lead to an incorrect Doppler shift estimate, which results in a serious performance degradation of the acquisition system. This paper proposes a novel two steps based bit sign transition cancellation method which can overcome the bit sign transition problem and remove or mitigate the CAF peak splitting impairments. The performance of the proposed technique has been comprehensively evaluated with Monte Carlo simulations in terms of detection and false alarm probabilities, which are presented by Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) and Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (SNR) curves. The test results show that the proposed acquisition technique can provide improved performance in comparison with the state-of-the-art acquisition approaches.

Over recent years, a number of marine autopilots designed using linear techniques have underperformed owing to their inability to cope with nonlinear vessel dynamics. To this end, a new design framework for the development of nonlinear autopilots is proposed. Local Control Networks (LCNs) can be used in the design of nonlinear control systems. In this paper, a LCN approach is taken in the design of a nonlinear autopilot for controlling the nonlinear yaw dynamics of an unmanned surface vehicle known as Springer. It is considered the approach is the first of its kind to be used in marine control systems design. Simulation results are presented and the performance of the nonlinear autopilot is compared with that of an existing Springer Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) autopilot using standard system performance criteria. From the results it can be concluded the LCN autopilot out-performed that based on LQG techniques in terms of the selected criteria. Also it provided more energy saving control strategies and would thereby increase operational duration times for the vehicle during real-time missions.

Positioning using the Global Positioning System (GPS) is unreliable in dense urban areas with tall buildings and/or narrow streets, known as ‘urban canyons’. This is because the buildings block, reflect or diffract the signals from many of the satellites. This paper investigates the use of 3-Dimensional (3-D) building models to predict satellite visibility. To predict Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) performance using 3-D building models, a simulation has been developed. A few optimized methods to improve the efficiency of the simulation for real-time purposes were implemented. Diffraction effects of satellite signals were considered to improve accuracy. The simulation is validated using real-world GPS and GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) observations.

The performance of current and future GNSS in urban canyons is then assessed by simulation using an architectural city model of London with decimetre-level accuracy. GNSS availability, integrity and precision is evaluated over pedestrian and vehicle routes within city canyons using different combinations of GNSS constellations. The results show that using GPS and GLONASS together cannot guarantee 24-hour reliable positioning in urban canyons. However, with the addition of Galileo and Compass, currently under construction, reliable GNSS performance can be obtained at most, but not all, of the locations in the test scenarios. The modelling also demonstrates that GNSS availability is poorer for pedestrians than for vehicles and verifies that cross-street positioning errors are typically larger than along-street due to the geometrical constraints imposed by the buildings. For many applications, this modelling technique could also be used to predict the best route through a city at a given time, or the best time to perform GNSS positioning at a given location.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Doppler measurements are commonly used for velocity-based relative positioning and aiding Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) in signal degraded environments. The aim of this paper is to characterise the Doppler measurements in GNSS harsh multipath environments. In multipath fading situations such as indoor and urban canyon environments, multipath components arrive to the receiver antenna from different paths and directions. These give rise to various Doppler shifts that cause errors in the velocity solution. In this work the Doppler measurements discrepancy characterised by Doppler spread in multipath environments is investigated. By assuming a ‘sphere of scatterers’ model and considering the antenna gain pattern, the theoretical Power Spectral Density (PSD) observed by a receiver is formulated. The theoretical findings are examined using two sets of measurements in dense multipath environments. Global Positioning System (GPS) live signals using non-isotropic antennas with different orientations are used for this purpose. Different motion directions are also examined using different data sets. An Assisted GPS (A-GPS) approach is utilised where the code phase and the navigation data bits are provided by a nearby outdoor antenna. By applying a ‘Block Processing’ technique, an epoch-by-epoch Doppler and velocity estimation is implemented. Herein, the Doppler and velocity measurements accuracy in addition to the Doppler spread characterization are studied. As shown both theoretically and experimentally, in harsh multipath environments the PSD of the observed signals is a function of the scatterers' geometry and the antenna gain pattern. The Doppler estimation accuracies in multipath and multipath-free cases are compared for different ranges of Carrier-to-Noise ratio (C/N0). Theoretical and experimental results revealed inaccurate Doppler estimation and poor Doppler-derived velocity solutions in dense multipath environments.

Visual navigation is comparatively advanced without a Global Positioning System (GPS). It obtains environmental information via real-time processing of the data gained through visual sensors. Compared with other methods, visual navigation is a passive method that does not launch light or other radiation applications, thus making it easier to hide. The novel navigation system described in this paper uses stereo-matching combined with Inertial Measurement Units (IMU). This system applies photogrammetric theory and a matching algorithm to identify the matching points of two images of the same scene taken from different views and obtains their 3D coordinates. Integrated with the orientation information output by the IMU, the system reduces model-accumulated errors and improves the point accuracy.

The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an integral element in vessel tracking. But what about ‘Satellite AIS’? Is Satellite AIS a viable, current and effective tool to assist in vessel tracking? This paper will present the basic premise of reception of AIS by Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. It will identify the technical aspects, present practical applications of Satellite AIS and look at implications for global tracking of vessels.

The Istanbul Strait is one of the most congested waterways in the world and is difficult to navigate due to its ‘S-shaped’ geographic structure (Akten, 2004). Much of the local marine traffic affects navigation safety. Results of Yurtoren and Inoue (2004)'s study, which investigated navigational risks in the Istanbul Strait in terms of manoeuvring difficulties and accident statistics, indicates the necessity of effective and applicable local traffic management in the southern entrance of the Strait. In this study, Marine Traffic Fast Time Simulation (MTFTS) studies are used and an attempt is made to improve navigation safety by proposing Local Traffic Separation Schemes (LTSS).

To improve the geolocation performance of an Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) survey platform, a geodetic Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver was combined with two tactical-grade Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) and mounted on two types of detection systems. Analysis of data collected for typical trajectories focused on the dual-IMU/GPS pre/post processing using optimal nonlinear estimation together with a Wave Correlation Filter (WCF) and end-matching. Each trajectory of the platforms was estimated by the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and the Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF). The WCF was then applied to the two solutions of the platform trajectories derived from each IMU in order to extract the common components in the frequency domain, assuming that uncorrelated components are errors. The remaining bias and trends of the estimated position results were further removed by end-matching IMU solutions and GPS update points. The results of these methods were applied to our field test data to show that the WCF and end-matching can improve position accuracy from 4% to 14% with respect to the Unscented Kalman Smoother (UKS) solution alone.

A novel design of an integrated system using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image and Automatic Identification System (AIS) data is proposed in this paper for the purpose of identifying ships at sea. TerraSAR-X® (SpotLight mode) images and AIS data collected over Incheon Port (Korea) and Tokyo Bay (Japan) were used on different dates. Four main steps for integration of SAR and AIS based ships can be identified, namely: ‘Time Matching’ to retrieve the respective Dead Reckoning (DR) position of the ships at SAR image acquisition times; ‘Position Matching’ based on a nearest neighbourhood re-sampling method with compensation of position shift; ‘Size Matching’ and ‘Speed Matching’. Under each of the matching criteria, the measurement error in each of the matching criteria was found to be less than 20% and the SAR extracted ship's hull boundaries were presented on a screen to display the system results. The results of this study will contribute to the design a Near-Real-Time (NRT) operational system for ship detection, identification, and classification by SARs in different data acquisition modes over various geographical locations at different acquisition times. This novel integrated system design will provide a most important preliminary step towards integration based on ships' hull monitoring in order to recognize ‘friend’ and ‘foe’ ship targets over a huge oceanic region and would be useful for coast guards as an early warning system.

In the paper Piracy at Sea: Somalia an Area of Great Concern (Baniela, 2010), a general up-to-date vision of piracy at sea in Somalia was analysed. As piracy at sea has political, socio-economic, security and humanitarian dimensions, the international community requires a thorough approach that embraces a comprehensive and multi-faceted response of effective counter-measures, both onshore and offshore. So as a follow-up to that paper, the objective of this one is to analyse the impact of the current strategy in the struggle against piracy in Somalia carried out by the international community focused solely at sea and to examine the proposals to find a solution to the problem on land.

The fusion of multi-sensor data can provide more accurate and reliable navigation performance than single-sensor methods. However, the general Federated Kalman Filter (FKF) is not suitable for large changes of complex nonlinear systems parameters and is not optimized for effective information sharing coefficients to estimate navigation preferences. This study concerns research on the FKF method for a nonlinear adaptive model based on an improved Genetic Algorithm (GA) for the Strapdown Inertial Navigation System (SINS) / Celestial Navigation System (CNS) / Global Positioning System (GPS) integrated multi-sensor navigation system. An improved fitness function avoids the premature convergence problem of a general GA and decimal coding improves its performance. The improved GA is used to build the adaptive FKF model and to select the optimized information sharing coefficients of the FKF. An Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) is used to deal with the nonlinearity of integrated navigation system. Finally, a solution and implementation of the system is proposed and verified experimentally.

The Chinese Area Positioning System (CAPS) is a regional satellite navigation system; its space segment consists of some Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites and 2∼3 Inclined Geo-Synchronous Orbit (IGSO) satellites. Only a few satellites are needed to provide good area coverage and hence it is an ideal space segment for a regional navigation system. A time transfer mode is used to transmit navigation signals, so no high-precision atomic clocks are required onboard the satellites; all of the transferred navigation signals are generated by the same atomic clock at the master control station on the ground. By using virtual clock technology, the time of emission of signals from the ground control station is transformed to the time of transfer of signals at the phase centre of the satellite antenna; thus the impact of ephemeris errors of satellite on positioning accuracy is greatly decreased, enabling the CAPS to have the capability of wide area augmentation. A novel technology of orbit determination, called Paired Observation Combination for Both Stations (POCBS), proposed by the National Time Service Centre, is used in CAPS. The generation and measurement of ranging signals for the orbit survey are carried out in the ground station and the instrument errors are corrected in real-time. The determination of the clock offset is completely independent of the determination of satellite orbit, so the error of the clock offset has no impact on orbit determination. Therefore, a very high precision of satellite orbits, better than 4·2 cm (1 drms) can be obtained by the stations under regional distribution.

In a car navigation system the conventional information used to guide drivers in selecting their driving routes typically considers only one criterion, usually the Shortest Distance Path (SDP). However, drivers may apply multiple criteria to decide their driving routes. In this paper, possible route selection criteria together with a Multi Objective Path Optimisation (MOPO) model and algorithms for solving the MOPO problem are proposed. Three types of decision criteria were used to present the characteristics of the proposed model. They relate to the cumulative SDP, passed intersections (Least Node Path – LNP) and number of turns (Minimum Turn Path – MTP). A two-step technique which incorporates shortest path algorithms for solving the MOPO problem was tested. To demonstrate the advantage that the MOPO model provides drivers to assist in route selection, several empirical studies were conducted using two real road networks with different roadway types. With the aid of a Geographic Information System (GIS), drivers can easily and quickly obtain the optimal paths of the MOPO problem, despite the fact that these paths are highly complex and difficult to solve manually.

Integer ambiguity resolution in Precise Point Positioning (PPP) can shorten convergence time and improve accuracy significantly. Uncalibrated Fractional Offsets (UFOs) originating in the satellites destroy the integer nature of carrier phase ambiguities observed at a single station. Several methods have been developed to estimate UFO information from a reference network for PPP ambiguity resolution. In this paper, we present a new approach for estimating Zero-Differenced (ZD) UFOs via float ZD ambiguities from a reference network. In this new approach, UFOs for receivers and satellites are estimated in an integrated adjustment with integer ambiguities being resolved sequentially, so that UFOs of higher quality can be achieved. The float ZD ambiguities used in the estimation can be from network or PPP solutions. Using those from PPP solutions enables the time-consuming clock estimations and the UFO estimations to be carried out separately, so that UFOs can be estimated more reliably from a much denser network. In this paper, a data processing procedure, from the estimation of UFOs through to PPP ambiguity fixing, is designed and proposed. The approach is validated with several data sets in various scenarios. The results show that satellite UFOs can be estimated precisely and reliably by using the observations from a reference network, in which the station spacing could be up to thousands of kilometres. With 30 minutes of observations, a PPP solution with fixed integer ambiguities is achievable and the positioning accuracy can be improved significantly when compared with its float solution.

One of the issues regarding integrated GPS/pseudolite measurements is how to deliver a pseudolite's position to a receiver or to post-processing software and how to manage it. This paper presents a proposed solution to this problem. The standard navigation message is modified in such way that without changing receivers (or post-processing software), the calculated position of a transmitter is fixed at a pseudolite's known position. The formulae for modification of standard Ephemeris Data are also derived. This algorithm can be implemented in a transmitter's firmware or a navigation data file can be modified for post-processing.

Gravity Assist (GA) is a kind of transfer orbit technology widely used in interplanetary missions, which highly depends on navigation performance to succeed. The Orbital Dynamic Equation is an essential component in the navigation system, affected by factors including the numerical integrator, perturbing planets, integration step size, gravitational constant and planet ephemerides. To analyse the impact factors mentioned above and investigate an efficient system model, the propagation and navigation results are carried out in a Mars-assist explorer scenario; a specific case study is also provided in this paper. The results indicate that the planetary ephemeris uncertainty and integration size are the dominant error sources, and the integration step size is the dominant impact factor on the real-time performance. In this specific case, the ‘Orbital Dynamic Equation’ considering Sun and Mars perturbation is suggested for integration by RK4 with 60 s integration step size. The conclusions drawn by this study are particularly useful in the design, construction, and analysis of an autonomous navigation system for a GA explorer.

Many countries have presented new requirements for in-orbit space services. Space autonomous rendezvous and docking technology could speed up the development of in-orbit spacecraft and reduce the threat of increasing amounts of space debris. The purpose of this paper is to provide real-time high-precision navigation data for high-orbit spacecraft, thus reducing the cost of ground monitoring for high-orbit spacecraft autonomous rendezvous operations, and to provide technical support for high-orbit spacecraft in-orbit services. This paper proposes a new high-orbit spacecraft autonomous navigation approach, based on a communication satellite transmitting ground navigation signals. It proposes an overall navigation system design, sets up the system information integration model and analyses the precision of the navigation system by simulation research. Through simulation of this navigation method, the positional precision of a spacecraft at an altitude of 40 000 km, can be within 2·6 m with a velocity precision of 0·0011 m/s. The transponding satellite navigation method greatly reduces the development costs by using communication satellites in high-orbit spacecraft navigation instead of launching special navigation satellites. Moreover, the signals of transponding satellite navigation are generated on the ground, which is very convenient and cost-effective for system maintenance. In addition, placing atomic clocks on the ground may also help improve the clock accuracy achieved. In this study, the satellite-based navigation method is for the first time applied in high-orbit spacecraft navigation. The study's data could improve the present lack of effective high-orbit spacecraft navigation methods and provide strong technical support for autonomous rendezvous and docking of high orbital spacecraft, as well as other application fields.

This paper presents a sensor fusion method for the Ultra-Tightly Coupled (UTC) Global Positioning System (GPS)/Inertial Navigation System (INS) integrated navigation. The UTC structure, also known as the deep integration, exhibits many advantages, e.g., disturbance and multipath rejection capability, improved tracking capability for dynamic scenarios and weak signals, and reduction of acquisition time. This architecture involves the integration of I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature) components from the correlator of a GPS receiver with the INS data. The Particle Filter (PF) exhibits superior performance as compared to an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) in state estimation for the nonlinear, non-Gaussian system. To handle the problem of heavy-tailed probability distribution, one of the strategies is to incorporate the UKF into the PF as the proposal distribution, leading to the Unscented Particle Filter (UPF). The combination of an adaptive UPF and Fuzzy Logic Adaptive System (FLAS) is adopted for reducing the number of particles with sufficiently good results. The GPS tracking loops may lose lock due to the signals being weak, subjected to excessive dynamics or completely blocked. One of the principal advantages of the UTC structure is that a Doppler frequency derived from the INS is integrated with the tracking loops to improve the receiver tracking capability. The Doppler frequency shift is calculated and fed to the GPS tracking loops for elimination of the effect of stochastic errors caused by the Doppler frequency. In this paper, several nonlinear filtering approaches, including EKF, UKF, UPF and ‘FLAS assisted UPF’ (FUPF), are adopted for performance comparison for ultra-tight integration of GPS and INS. It is assumed that no outage occurs such that the inertial sensor errors can be properly corrected and accordingly the aiding information is working well. Two examples are provided for performance assessment for the various data fusion methods. The FUPF algorithm with Doppler velocity aiding demonstrates remarkable improvement, especially in the high dynamic environments, in navigation estimation accuracy with reduction of number of particles.

When a ship is moored by a single anchor at the anchorage, its combined motions (i.e. yaw, sway, surge, etc.) are usually induced by external forces. Previous studies have gained some insights into the forces on anchor chains, but the motions for Capesize vessels still need to be further investigated. The length of anchor chain required for safe anchoring also needs to be carefully calculated rather than determined solely by the experience and judgement of Captains. The relationship between the length of chain and water depth, wind force, current velocity and the trim (draught difference forward/aft) requires further study. Our new methods consider all necessary factors which may exert significant influence on ships, including not only the water depth at the anchoring location but also the particulars of the ships, its equipment and the environmental conditions. Here, a numerical simulation model to describe the behaviour of an anchored Capesize ship is presented, with the comparison of results between simulations and real time model tests carried out. A discussion highlights the important features of the methods which provide mariners with theoretical solutions.