In this study we present new petrological results from the Endora Klippe in the Central Zone of the Limpopo Belt, which may result from horizontal tectonics during the Proterozoic at c. 2.0Ga. Microstructures, assemblages and garnet zonation patterns observed in metapelitic rocks provide evidence that the Endora Klippe rocks underwent a contemporaneous pressure–temperature increase from c. 600°C/5kbar to 650°C/6.5kbar. This is inferred by the use of conventional geothermobarometry and interpretations based on quantitative phase diagrams in the system MnO–(TiO2)–(CaO)–(Na2O)–K2O–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O. Thus, the petrological results indicate that this part of the Central Zone only underwent a medium-grade metamorphic overprint during a single orogenic event and was never affected by granulite-facies metamorphism, as reported from other parts of the Limpopo Belt. The inferred P–T path, in combination with previous structural and petrological results, leads to the conclusion that the area surrounding the Endora Klippe forms the roof zone of the c. 2.0Ga old granulite-facies rocks forming wide parts of the Limpopo Central Zone.

A 6 cm thick K-bentonite, herein defined as the Russell Bed, occurs in an Upper Ordovician deep-basin shale succession in eastern Ontario, Canada, forming part of the distal Taconic foreland in eastern North America. The bed lies within the pygmaeus graptolite Biozone, which is about 451 to 452 Ma in age. Although some bentonites are reported from this interval in eastern North America, we are reporting the first set of compositional data for a bentonite of this age. Gamma-log correlation identifies a potential minimum distribution area of <2×105 km2 for the K-bentonite, covering part of southern Quebec, New York State and eastern Ontario. The deposit coincides with the first influx of distal turbdites into this shale basin, associated with Taconic flysch, and simultaneous abrupt ventilation of the once anoxic deep-water basin, which had formed initially after foundering of the Upper Ordovician carbonate platform. Concurrent intrabasinal extinction of several graptolite species suggests that change in sedimentation, palaeoceanography and volcanism were linked to a regional external process. Compositionally, the bentonite is distinct from the older Ordovician platform deposits in eastern North America. The deposit contains abundant titaniferous phlogopite with 1.6% BaO, fluoroapatite with 2.5% F, and dynamically shaped glass spherules now altered to clay. The spherules and clay matrix constitute 45% of the bed and, compositionally, define an illite (>90%)–smectite (I/S) structure with about 7.5% K2O%. Age-dating by Ar–Ar analysis of the phlogopite crystals yielded a younger than expected (440–445 Ma) age. This difference, along with evidence of localized chloritization of phlogopite, likely reflects known post-Ordovician hydrothermal activity within the basin. On the basis of several geochemical proxies, the magmatic source of the Russell K-bentonite falls within the trachyandesite field and was Ba-enriched. Comparison of geochemistry and mineralogy with older, Middle to Late Ordovician and younger Early Silurian K-bentonites within the Taconic orogen along eastern Laurentia and Baltica reveals that the potential source magma for the Russell Bed was more mafic, more alkaline, and less fractionated than sources typical of older (platform) bentonites. Instead, it is more similar to the younger Llandovery bentonites of Scandinavia and Scotland. It remains uncertain if it signals local or regional compositional change in volcanic source in the northern Appalachians.

We report the discovery of Aeronian (Middle Llandovery) graptolites, and corals of probable Devonian age, in boudins hosted by greenschists, within the Southalpine Metamorphic Basement. These discoveries provide key constraints to the depositional age range of the protoliths. This remarkable occurrence of almost undeformed graptolites and compound corals in boudins within a metamorphic shear zone indicates very marked local strain partitioning.

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Carbon isotopic data from the Selinde section in the southeastern part of the Siberian platform area are correlated with the reference isotopic profile from the Lower Cambrian stratotype sections of the Lena–Aldan region, but also show additional δ13C excursions unrecognized there. The chemostratigraphic correlation suggests that the geological and fossil record of the lower Pestrotsvet Formation in the Selinde section has a deeper history than the stratotype region. This conclusion is important for both constraining the age of the earliest Cambrian marine transgression on the Siberian platform and providing a clearer understanding of the pace and order of early Cambrian geochemical and biological events.

Post-caldera eruptions of Santorini, Greece, over the past 3000 years resulted in the formation of the Kameni Islands, which comprise a series of compositionally similar dacitic lava flows. Each lava flow has a distinct population of partially-crystalline mafic enclaves, which we propose were derived from the break-up of a layer of replenishing magma responsible for triggering the eruption. Five of the recent flows (erupted in 1570, 1939, 1940, 1941 and 1950) include enclaves of essentially identical andesitic bulk compositions, which formed by crystallization of originally aphyric melts prior to eruption. Detailed examination of angles subtended at the junctions between pairs of plagioclase grains demonstrates that enclaves from each flow have a characteristic textural signature, with distinct differences in the extent of quench-related modification of the original population of dihedral angles formed by impingement of growing grains. These variations suggest that the temperature difference between the host dacite and the replenishing andesite at the time of layer overturn and eruption differed between flows. The uniformity of major element compositions of both the replenishing magma and the host dacitic lava flows demonstrates that the critical parameter in determining the timing of layer-overturn is the pre-eruptive H2O content of both host dacite and replenishing magma. We suggest that the replenishing magma responsible for two of the three eruptions in the period 1939–1941 was significantly wetter than that responsible for the later 1950 eruption. The enclaves with the least amount of quench-related modification occur in the 1570 flow. We suggest that in this case the intruding magma was relatively dry.

A pair of samples, from host lava and an included segregation vein from the Reykjanes Peninsula, Iceland, allows the assessment of a complete fractional crystallization of an olivine tholeiite at low pressure. The final product consists of silicic glasses with bimodal composition: trondhjemitic and more rarely granitic. Compilation of data on major element compositions of Icelandic silicic rocks reveals a clear difference from those of the segregation glasses. Fractional crystallization of basalts at low pressure is therefore not the most likely mechanism for the origin of silicic magmas in Iceland. Similar conclusions have been reached in studies on O- and Th-isotope compositions. On the other hand, the trondhjemitic compositions of the glasses in the segregation vein from Reykjanes Peninsula suggest that fractional crystallization of olivine tholeiites could have played a significant role during the formation of the very early continental crust.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been applied extensively to analyse spatial data relating to varied environmental issues, but have not so far been used to address biostratigraphical or macroevolutionary questions over extended spatial and temporal scales. Here, we use GIS techniques to test the stability, validity and utility of proposed Middle and Late Triassic ‘Land Vertebrate Faunachrons’ (LVFs), a global biostratigraphical framework based upon terrestrial/freshwater tetrapod occurrences. A database of tetrapod and megafloral localities was constructed for North America and Western Europe that also incorporated information on relevant palaeoenvironmental variables. This database was subjected to various spatial analysis techniques. Our GIS analysis found support at a global level for Eocyclotosaurus as an Anisian index taxon and probably Aetosaurus as a Norian indicator. Other tetrapod taxa are useful biostratigraphical/biochronological markers on a regional basis, such as Longosuchus and Doswellia for Late Carnian time. Other potential index fossils are hampered, however, by taxonomic instability (Mastodonsaurus, Metoposaurus, Typothorax, Paleorhinus, Pseudopalatus, Redondasaurus, Redondasuchus) and/or are not clearly restricted in temporal distribution (Paleorhinus, Angistorhinus, Stagonolepis, Metoposaurus and Rutiodon). This leads to instability in LVF diagnosis. We found only in the western Northern Hemisphere is there some evidence for an Anisian–Ladinian biochronological unit amalgamating the Perovkan and Berdyankian LVFs, and a possible late Carnian unit integrating the Otischalkian and Adamanian.

Megaplants are generally not useful for biostratigraphical correlation in the Middle and Upper Triassic of the study area, but there is some evidence for a Carnian-age floral assemblage that corresponds to the combined Otischalkian and Adamanian LVFs. Environmental biases do not appear to strongly affect the spatial distribution of either the tetrapods or megaplants that have been proposed as index taxa in biostratigraphical schemes, though several examples of apparent environmental bias were detected by the analysis. Consequently, we argue that further revision and refinement of Middle and Late Triassic LVFs is needed before they can be used to support global or multi-regional biostratigraphical correlations. Caution should therefore be exercised when using the current scheme as a platform for macroevolutionary or palaeoecological hypotheses. Finally, this study demonstrates the potential of GIS as a powerful tool for tackling palaeontological questions over extended timescales.

Dykes of calc-alkaline lamprophyre cutting granite of the Hercynian Jebilet Massif of the Moroccan Meseta (western Morocco) contain crustal xenoliths. The xenoliths range in composition from mafic (cognate cumulates) and upper crustal granitic rocks through gneisses to middle crustal felsic granulites. SHRIMP U–Th–Pb zircon analyses of these rocks indicate that the dykes were likely intruded during Middle Triassic times (∼235 Ma), whereas the xenoliths contain zircons with concordant Carboniferous–Early Permian, Neoproterozoic and Palaeoproterozoic ages (280–328 Ma, c. 540–615 Ma, 700 Ma and ∼2000 Ma). The 280–328 Ma ages appear to record synchronous intrusive and high-grade (up to granulite facies) Variscan metamorphic events, suggesting that high-grade metamorphism may have facilitated the S-type granitic magmatism. On the other hand, the ∼540–615 Ma, 700 Ma and 2000 Ma ages correspond with Pan-African and Eburnian orogenic events recorded in the West African Craton. In a Triassic reconstruction, Morocco is juxtaposed against Nova Scotia (Canada), and some have proposed that the basement of the easternmost terrane (Meguma terrane) is a piece of the West African craton. However, lower crustal xenoliths from Devonian dykes (∼370 Ma) cutting the Meguma terrane have yielded Late Devonian, Neo- and Mesoproterozoic ages (378 Ma, 575–629 Ma, ∼880–1050 Ma and ∼1530 Ma). The presence of ∼1 Ga ages suggests that the basement of the Meguma terrane is Avalonian rather than West African, implying that in a Pangean reconstruction, the Rheic Ocean suture between NW Africa and Maritime Canada coincides with the Atlantic Ocean.

In the Appalachians of mainland Canada and New England, Silurian/Early Devonian rocks are preserved in the Connecticut Valley–Gaspé and Merrimack troughs, and rest unconformably or in fault contact with older rocks belonging to Laurentia and to Gander/Avalon, respectively. The Silurian/Early Devonian rocks consist of marine clastic deposits with subordinate carbonates, lava flows and terrestrial deposits. The origin of these sedimentary basins is still poorly understood. Metamorphic ages and structures in the Laurentian margin, major unconformities and syn-sedimentary normal faulting in both troughs argue for significant crustal extension during deposition. The Connecticut Valley–Gaspé and Merrimack troughs are separated by inliers of pre-Ordovician to Ordovician rocks which we interpret as Silurian basement highs that would have been buried in Devonian times to form a composite sedimentary basin. Volcanic rocks are widely distributed in time and space in both basins, and are mostly subalkaline within-plate tholeiites, which is consistent with a tectonic setting involving crustal extension rather than with subduction. Granitic plutons are abundant in the Merrimack trough and attest to high temperatures at mid-crustal levels. It is suggested that crustal extension was responsible for the formation of both basins and that heating of the lower crust in the Merrimack trough during the Silurian was the result of synorogenic collapse likely triggered by delamination at the Laurentia–Medial New England boundary. Delamination of the subducted slab and the upwelling of the asthenosphere would have caused (1) isostatic uplift and formation of basement highs, (2) magmatism in the lower crust and regional-scale contact metamorphism in the upper crust, and (3) collapse of metamorphic terranes and the formation of subsiding sedimentary basins.

Early Devonian miospore assemblages from ‘La Gileppe’ (Eastern Belgium) include five varieties of trilete spore belonging to the genus Emphanisporites. These five varieties show a continuous variation of their morphological characteristics. The variation in morphological characteristics can be related to the evolution of morphological features and allows us to define the Emphanisporites micrornatus Morphon. A statistical evaluation of this population highlights the interdependence of almost all morphological parameters. This study proves the increase in size of ornamental and structural parameters over several million years. The biometric changes and the progressive replacement of older morphotypes by younger ones indicate that a temporal link exists between these different varieties. Two phylogenetic hypotheses for the E. micrornatus Morphon are proposed. This morphological evolution is so far observed only on the Eastern Old Red Sandstone Continent and defines a palaeophytogeographic sinuosus–zavallatus Province.

The Neoproterozoic was a time of profound biological and geological change. After a long time of verymodest changes in the flora and fauna, the Ediacaran period finally brought forward the first diverse microflora, the first diverse macrophytes, as well as the first diverse macroscopic organisms, some of which likely are animals. There were significant palaeogeographic changes, at least two, or probably three, pronounced levels of widely recorded glaciations, and extensive fluctuations in δ13 C. Much thought has recently been directed at understanding if, and how, several, or most, of these events are related.

The Palaeogene Slieve Gullion Igneous Centre in southern Armagh, Northern Ireland, consists of a layered central intrusive complex surrounded by a prominent and slightly older ring-dyke that intrudes both Lower Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks and the Caledonian Newry Granodiorite pluton (452 Ma). The ring-dyke comprises two major rock types: porphyritic felsite and porphyritic granophyre. We analysed both ring-dyke lithologies, both types of country rock, and a local Palaeogene basalt dyke sample for Sr and Nd isotopes. Trace element and whole rock data for this suite suggest that there are two distinct groups of both felsite and granophyre: one Si-rich and one Si-poor, most likely representing two magmas from a zoned chamber and their mushy chamber wall equivalents (McDonnell et al. 2004). Isotope data show the low-Si rocks to be higher in radiogenic Sr than the high-Si rocks, which is inconsistent with a simple AFC-scenario of increasing sediment assimilation with higher degrees of differentiation. However, using MORB-type basalt as a starting composition, the low-Si ring-dyke rocks can be modelled through AFC with Lower Palaeozoic sedimentary rock as the contaminant. The decreasing 87Sr/86Sr trend from low-Si to high-Si dyke rocks, in turn, represents a second stage of contamination. Selective assimilation of the most fusible portions of Newry Granodiorite, which is lower in radiogenic Sr than the local sedimentary rocks, appears to be the most plausible solution. The Sr and Nd data are consistent with (a) at least a two-stage contamination history during upper crustal residence and storage, whereby fractionating magmas of basaltic and intermediate composition are contaminated by local sedimentary rocks, giving rise to rhyolite magmas that experience additional shallow contamination by Newry Granodiorite, and (b) a zoned rhyolite magma chamber where high-Si magma is stored in the upper part of the chamber where crystallization and crustal contamination are most extensive.

We report U–Pb electron microprobe (zircon and monazite) and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) U–Pb (zircon) ages from a granulite-facies metapelite and a garnet–biotite gniess from Chittikara, a classic locality within the Trivandrum Block of southern India. The majority of the electron-microprobe data on zircons from the metapelite define apparent ages between 1500 and 2500 Ma with a prominent peak at 2109±22 Ma, although some of the cores are as old as 3070 Ma. Zircon grains with multiple age zoning are also detected with 2500–3700 Ma cores, 1380–1520 mantles and 530–600 Ma outer rims. Some homogeneous and rounded zircon cores yielded late Neoproterozoic ages that suggest that deposition within the Trivandrum Block belt was younger than 610 Ma. The outermost rims of these grains are characterized by early Cambrian ages suggesting metamorphic overgrowth at this time. The apparent ages of monazite grains from this locality reveal multiple provenance and polyphase metamorphic history, similar to those of the zircons. In a typical case, Palaeoproterozoic cores (1759–1967 Ma) are enveloped by late Neoproterozoic rims (562–563 Ma), which in turn are mantled by an outermost thin Cambrian rim (∼515 Ma). PbO v. ThO*2 plots for monazites define broad isochrons, with cores indicating a rather imprecise age of 1913±260 Ma (MSWD=0.80) and late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian cores as well as thin rims yielding a well-defined isochron with an age of 557±19 Ma (MSWD=0.82). SIMS U–Pb isotopic data on zircons from the garnet–biotite gneiss yield a combined core/rim imprecise discordia line between 2106±37 Ma and 524±150 Ma. The data indicate Palaeoproterozoic zircon formation with later partial or non-uniform Pb loss during the late Neoproterozoic/Cambrian tectonothermal event. The combined electron probe and SIMS data from the metapelite and garnet–biotite gneiss at Chittikara indicate that the older zircons preserved in the finer-grained metapelite protolith have heterogeneous detrital sources, whereas the more arenaceous protolith of the garnet–biotite gniess was sourced from a single-aged terrane. Our data suggest that the metasedimentary belts in southern India may have formed part of an extensive late Neoproterozoic sedimentary basin during the final amalgamation of the Gondwana supercontinent.

The Fish River Subgroup of the Nama Group, southern Namibia, is restudied in terms of lithostratigraphy and depositional environment. The study is based on partly fine-scaled sections, particularly of the Nababis and Gross Aub Formation. The results are generally in accordance with earlier studies. However, braided river deposits appear to be less widely distributed in the studied area, and a considerable part of the formations of the middle and upper subgroup apparently were deposited under shallowest marine conditions including upper shore-face. Evidence comes partly from sedimentary features and facies distribution, and partly from trace fossils, particularly Skolithos and the characteristic Trichophycus pedum. Environmental conditions represented by layers with T. pedum suggest that the producer favoured shallow marine habitats and transgressive regimes. The successions represent two deepening-upward sequences, both starting as fluvial (braided river) systems and ending as shallow marine tidally dominated environments. The first sequence includes the traditional Stockdale, Breckhorn and lower Nababis formations (Zamnarib Member). The second sequence includes the upper Nababis (Haribes Member) and Gross Aub formations. As a result, the Nababis and Gross Aub formations require emendation: a new formation including the Haribes and Rosenhof and possibly also the Deurstamp members. In addition, four distinct sequence stratigraphic units are deter-minable for the Fish River Subgroup in the southern part of the basin. The Proterozoic–Cambrian transition in southern Namibia is most probably located as low as the middle Schwarzrand Subgroup. The environmentally controlled occurrence of Trichophycus pedum undermines the local stratigraphic significance of this trace fossil which is eponymous with the lowest Cambrian and Phanerozoic trace fossil assemblage on a global scale. However, occurrences of such trace fossils have to be regarded as positive evidence for Phanerozoic age regardless of co-occurring body fossils. Other suggestions strongly dispute the concept of the formal Proterozoic–Cambrian and Precambrian–Phanerozoic boundary. Carbon isotope excursions and radiometric datings for the Nama Group do not help to calibrate precisely the temporal extent of the Fish River Subgroup. Fossil content, sequence stratigraphy and inferred depositional developments suggest that this subgroup represents only a short period of late orogenic molasse sedimentation during the early sub-trilobitic Early Cambrian.

A large rapakivi granite batholith in the Neo-Archaean/Palaeoproterozoic Odesan complex, northeastern Gyeonggi massif, South Korea, has been dated at 1839±10 Ma using SHRIMP U–Pb analysis of zircons. The age, petrological and geochemical characteristics of this batholith are similar to those of the rapakivi granite batholiths exposed in the Rangnim massif of North Korea and in the Miyun–Chengde complex of North China. The country rocks of these rapakivi granite batholiths are also comparable; all are composed of granitic gneisses and banded iron formation (BIF)-bearing supracrustal rocks metamorphosed to amphibolite- to granulite-facies. This study provides new evidence for the suggestion that the Gyeonggi and Rangnim massifs may share an affinity with the Precambrian basement of the North China craton. The study provides new insight into the possible eastward extension of the Sulu orogenic belt in the Korean peninsula and further provides evidence to correlate the Korea basement to a possible global 2.1–1.8 Ga supercontinent.

We describe the stratigraphical/sedimentological and structural evolution of the Manyara Rift in the Tanzania Divergence Zone, East Africa. The rift-related Manyara Beds on the shoaling side of the Manyara Rift were deposited between <1.7 and 0.4 Ma and can be separated into a lacustrine lower member and a fluvial upper member. The transition from lacustrine to fluvial sedimentation at ∼ 0.7 Ma appears to be related to a southward shift of major rift faulting. Fault geometry and the kinematics of the faults are consistent with major faulting during NE/E-directed extension. There is also evidence for other extensional directions including radial extension, which might be caused by magmatic activity and/or might reflect oblate strain symmetry where the East African Rift propagated into the Archaean Tanzania Craton and associated termination of rifting caused an increase in the strained area.

A second species of the placoderm genus Placolepis (Pl. harajica sp. nov.), based on a single articulated specimen from Givetian–Frasnian strata in the MacDonnell Ranges, demonstrates the occurrence of this taxon across the Australian craton. Placolepis (order Phyllolepida) is endemic to east Gondwana, and other phyllolepids are widespread in the Givetian and younger of Gondwana (Australia, Antarctica, Turkey, Venezuela), but do not occur until Late Devonian (Famennian) time in the Northern Hemisphere (Europe, Russia, Greenland, North America). The disjunct space–time distribution of the Phyllolepida is inconsistent with palaeomagnetic evidence indicating a wide equatorial ocean between Gondwana and Laurussia in Late Devonian time. This new species provides additional evidence supporting a Gondwana origin for the group, and later access to northern landmasses resulting from closure of the ocean between Gondwana and Laurussia and continental connection at or near the Frasnian–Famennian boundary.

Integrated graptolite and chitinozoan biostratigraphical data are presented from the upper Telychian (Oktavites spiralis and Cyrtograptus lapworthi graptolite biozones) of the Ventspils D-3 core, Latvia. The base of the Angochitina longicollis chitinozoan Biozone is approximately coincident with that of the spiralis graptolite Biozone, as it is elsewhere in the East Baltic, although in Wales it lies within the upper spiralis graptolite Biozone. Conochitina proboscifera appears in the upper spiralis graptolite Biozone in the Ventspils D-3 core, but at lower and higher horizons elsewhere, presumably reflecting its patchy distribution during the lower part of its stratigraphical range. Ramochitina ruhnuensis appears to be a stratigraphically useful, although geographically restricted, species, appearing at a level close to the base of the lapworthi graptolite Biozone. The most remarkable feature of the Ventspils D-3 chitinozoan record is the very early occurrence, in the upper spiralis graptolite Biozone, of two chitinozoan biozonal index species: Margachitina banwyensis and M. margaritana. Previously, these two taxa were considered unequivocal indicators of the uppermost Telychian to Sheinwoodian or Homerian, respectively.

A cyclic marl–limestone succession of Middle–Late Campanian age has been investigated with respect to a Milankovitch-controlled origin of geochemical data. In general, the major element geochemistry of the marl–limestone rhythmites can be explained by a simple two-component mixing model with the end-members calcium carbonate and ‘average shale’-like material. Carbonate content varies from 55 to 90%. Non-carbonate components are clay minerals (illite, smectite) and biogenic silica from sponge spicules, as well as authigenically formed zeolites (strontian heulandite) and quartz. The redox potential suggests oxidizing conditions throughout the section. Trace element and stable isotopic data as well as SEM investigations show that the carbonate mud is mostly composed of low-magnesium calcitic tests of planktic coccolithophorids and calcareous dinoflagellate cysts (calcispheres). Diagenetic overprint results in a decrease of 2% δ18O and an increase in Mn of up to 250 ppm. However, the sediment seems to preserve most of its high Sr content compared to the primary low-magnesium calcite of co-occurring belemnite rostra. The periodicity of geochemical cycles is dominated by 413 ka and weak signals between 51 and 22.5 ka, attributable to orbital forcing. Accumulation rates within these cycles vary between 40 and 50 m/Ma. The resulting cyclic sedimentary sequence is the product of (a) changes in primary production of low-magnesium calcitic biogenic material in surface waters within the long eccentricity and the precession, demonstrated by the CaCO3 content and the Mg/Al, Mn/Al and Sr/Al ratios, and (b) fluctuations in climate and continental weathering, which changed the quality of supplied clay minerals (the illite/smectite ratio), demonstrated by the K/Al ratio. High carbonate productivity correlates with smectite-favouring weathering (semi-arid conditions, conspicuously dry and moist seasonal changes in warmer climates). Ti as the proxy indicator for the detrital terrigenous influx, as well as Rb, Si, Zr and Na, shows only low frequency signals, indicating nearly constant rates of supply throughout the more or less pure pelagic carbonate deposition of the long-lasting third-order Middle–Upper Campanian sedimentary cycle.