Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T02:41:29.070Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 September 2017

T. R. Oke ,
G. Mills ,
A. Christen  and
J. A. Voogt
T. R. Oke
Affiliation:
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
G. Mills
Affiliation:
University College Dublin
A. Christen
Affiliation:
University of Freiburg
J. A. Voogt
Affiliation:
University of Western Ontario
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Urban Climates , pp. 486 - 509
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, B., 1978: Regional kinematic fields. In: Summary of METROMEX, Vol. 2: Causes of Precipitation Anomalies, Ackerman, B. et al. (eds.), Bulletin 63, Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana, 165–209.Google Scholar
Ackerman, B., 1987: Climatology of Chicago area urban–rural differences in humidity. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 26, 427–430.Google Scholar
Ackerman, B., Changnon, S.A. Jr., Dzurisin, G., et al. 1978: Summary of METROMEX, Volume 2: Causes of Precipitation Anomalies, Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana, Bulletin 63.Google Scholar
Adderley, C., Christen, A., & Voogt, J.A., 2015: The effect of radiometer placement and view on inferred directional and hemispheric radiometric temperatures of an urban canopy. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 8, 2699–2714.Google Scholar
Aida, M., 1982: Urban albedo as a function of the urban structure – a model experiment. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 23, 405–413.Google Scholar
Akan, O., & Houghtalen, R.J., 2003: Urban Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Stormwater Quality, Wiley, New York, 392 pp.Google Scholar
Akbari, H., Davis, S., Dorsano, S., Huang, J., & Winnett, S., (eds.), 1992: Cooling our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing. EPA.Google Scholar
Albrecht, F., 1933: Untersuchungen der vertikalen Luftzirkulation in der Großstadt. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 50, 93–98.Google Scholar
Alexander, P.J., & Mills, G., 2014: Local climate classification and Dublin’s urban heat island. Atmosphere, 5, 755–774.Google Scholar
Alexandersson, H., 1979: A statistical analysis of wind, wind profiles and gust ratios at Gränby, Uppsala. Report No. 55, Dept. Meteorology, Univ. Uppsala.Google Scholar
Allwine, K.J., 2004: Overview of Joint URBAN 2003-An atmospheric dispersion study in Oklahoma City. Eighth Symposium on Integrated Observing and Assimilation Systems for Atmosphere, Oceans, and Land Surface, and Symposium on Planning, Nowcasting, and Forecasting in the Urban Zone, AMS 84th Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, January 10–16, Paper J7.1.Google Scholar
Allwine, K. J., Shinn, J. H., Streit, G. E., Clawson, K. L., & Brown, M., 2002: Overview of URBAN 2000: A multiscale field study of dispersion through an urban environment. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 83, 521–536.Google Scholar
Anandakumar, K., 1999: A study on the partition of net radiation into heat fluxes on a dry asphalt surface. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 3911–3918.Google Scholar
Andres, R.J., Boden, T.A., & Marland, G., 2015: Annual fossil-fuel CO2 emissions: Mass of emissions gridded by one degree latitude by one degree longitude. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.Google Scholar
Angell, J.K., Hoecker, W.H., Dickson, C.R., & Pack, D.H., 1973: Urban influence on a strong daytime airflow as determined from tetroon flights. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 12, 924–936.Google Scholar
Arya, S.P., 2001: Introduction to Micrometeorology, 2nd edn., Academic Press, Orlando, 420 pp.Google Scholar
Arnfield, A.J., 1982: An approach to the estimation of the surface radiative properties and radiation budgets of cities. Physical Geography, 3, 97–122.Google Scholar
Arnfield, A.J., 2003: Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. International Journal of Climatology, 23, 1–26.Google Scholar
ASCE, 2004: Outdoor human comfort and its assessment. In: ASCE State of the Art Report, Irwin, P.A. (ed.), Prepared by a task group of the Aerodynamics Committee. American Society of Civil Engineers.Google Scholar
ASCE, 2011: Urban Aerodynamics: Wind Engineering for Urban Planners and Designers, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 76 pp.Google Scholar
Ashley, W.S., Bentley, M.L., & Stallins, J.A., 2012: Urban-induced thunderstorm modification in the Southeast United States. Climatic Change, 113, 481–498.Google Scholar
ASHRAE, 2009: ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals – IP Edition. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.Google Scholar
Atkinson, W., 1912: The Orientation of Buildings or Planning for Sunlight, John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Atwater, M.A., 1971: The radiation budget for polluted layers of the urban environment. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 10, 205–214.Google Scholar
Baetens, R., Jelle, B.P., & Gustavsen, A., 2010: Phase change materials for building applications: a state-of-the-art review. Energy and Buildings, 42, 1361–1368.Google Scholar
Bailey, W.G., Oke, T.R., & Rouse, W.R., 1997: The Surface Climates of Canada, McGill-Queen’s Press, 400 pp.Google Scholar
Balchin, W.G.V., & Pye, N., 1947: A microclimatological investigation of Bath and the surrounding district. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 73, 297–323.Google Scholar
Balling, R.C., Cerveny, R.S., & Idso, C.D., 2001: Does the urban CO2 dome of Phoenix, Arizona contribute to its heat island? Geophysical Research Letters, 28, 4599–4601.Google Scholar
Balogun, A.A., Adegoke, J.O., Vezhapparambu, S., Mauder, M., McFadden, J.P., & Gallo, K., 2009: Surface energy balance measurements above an exurban residential neighbourhood of Kansas City, Missouri. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 133, 299–321.Google Scholar
Beirle, S., Boersma, K.F., Platt, U., Lawrence, M.G., & Wagner, T., 2011: Megacity emissions and lifetimes of nitrogen oxides probed from Space. Science, 333, 1737–1739.Google Scholar
Belcher, S.E., 2005: Mixing and transport in urban areas. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series A, 363, 2947–2968.Google Scholar
Bell, M. L., & Davis, D.L., 2001: Reassessment of the lethal London fog of 1952: Novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 389–394.Google Scholar
Benson, L., Petersen, K., & Stein, J., 2007: Anasazi (pre-Columbian native-American) migrations during the middle-12th and late 13th centuries – were they drought induced? Climatic Change, 83, 187–213.Google Scholar
Bergeron, O., & Strachan, I.B., 2011: CO2 sources and sinks in urban and suburban areas of a northern mid-latitude city. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 1564–1573.Google Scholar
Bergeron, O., & Strachan, I.B., 2012: Wintertime radiation and energy budget along an urbanization gradient in Montreal, Canada. International Journal of Climatology, 32, 137–152.Google Scholar
Bertaud, A., 2003: Clearing the air in Atlanta: transit and smart growth or conventional economics? Journal of Urban Economics, 54, 379–400.Google Scholar
Bitan, A., 1988: The methodology of applied climatology in planning and building. Energy and Buildings 11, 1–10.Google Scholar
Bitan, A., & Rehamimoff, A.A., 1991: Bet She’an master plan – climatic rehabilitation of an ancient historic city. Energy and Buildings, 15, 23–33.Google Scholar
Blake, D. R., & Rowland, F.S., 1995: Urban leakage of liquefied petroleum gas and its impact on air quality in Mexico City. Science, 269, 953.Google Scholar
Bluyssen, P.M., Oliveira Fernandes, E.D., Groes, L., et al., 1996: European indoor air quality audit project in 56 office buildings. Indoor Air, 6, 221–38.Google Scholar
Bodri, L., & Cermak, V., 2007: Borehole Climatology: a New Method on How to Reconstruct Climate, Elsevier, 1049 pp.Google Scholar
Bogner, J., Pipatti, R., Hashimoto, S., et al., 2008: Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste: conclusions and strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management & Research, 26, 11–32.Google Scholar
Bonan, G., 2002: Ecological Climatology: Concepts and Applications, Cambridge University Press, 563 pp.Google Scholar
Bornstein, R.D., 1968: Observations of the urban heat island effect in New York City. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 7, 575–582.Google Scholar
Bornstein, R.D., 1975: The two-dimensional URBMET urban boundary layer model. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 14, 1459–1477.Google Scholar
Bornstein, R.D., & Lin, Q., 2000: Urban heat islands and summertime convective thunderstorms in Atlanta: three case studies. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 507–516.Google Scholar
Bornstein, R.D., & Thompson, W.T., 1981: Effects of frictionally retarded sea breeze and synoptic frontal passages on sulfur dioxide concentrations in New York City. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 20, 843–858.Google Scholar
Bosselmann, P., Arens, E., Dunker, K., & Wright, R., 1995: Urban form and climate. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61, 226–239.Google Scholar
Bottema, M.M., 1993. Wind climate and urban geometry. Doctoral dissertation, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.Google Scholar
Bowler, D.E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T.M., & Pullin, A.S., 2010: Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and Urban Planning, 97, 147–155.Google Scholar
Braham, R.R. Jr., 1974: Cloud physics of urban weather modification – A preliminary report. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 55, 100–105.Google Scholar
Braham, R.R. Jr., 1981: Urban precipitation processes. In: METROMEX: A Review and Summary, Changnon, S.A. Jr. (ed.), Meteorological Monographs, 18, 75–116.Google Scholar
Braham, R.R. Jr., & Dungey, M.J., 1978: A study of urban effects on radar first echoes. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 644–654.Google Scholar
Braham, R.R. Jr., & Wilson, D., 1978: Effects of St. Louis on convective cloud heights. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 587–592.Google Scholar
Braham, R.R. Jr., Semonin, R.G., Auer, A.H., Changnon, S.A. Jr., & Hales, J.M., 1981: Summary of urban effects on clouds and rain. In: METROMEX: A Review and Summary, Changnon, S.A. Jr. (ed.), Meteorological Monographs, 18, 141–152.Google Scholar
Bretz, S., Akbari, H., & Rosenfeld, A., 1998: Practical issues for using solar-reflective materials to mitigate urban heat islands. Atmospheric Environment, 32, 95–101.Google Scholar
Brimblecombe, P., 2011: The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London since Medieval Times, 2nd edn., Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Brooks, C.E.P., 1952: Selective annotated bibliography on urban climate. Meteorological Abstracts and Bibliography, 3, 734–773.Google Scholar
Brown, M. J., 2004: Urban dispersion-challenges for fast response modeling. Proceedings of the AMS 5th Symposium on Urban Environment, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 23–26 August 2004, Paper 5.1.Google Scholar
Brown, R.D., & Gillespie, T.J., 1995: Microclimatic Landscape Design: Creating Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency, John Wiley & Sons, 208 pp.Google Scholar
Bünzli, D., & Schmid, H.P., 1999: The influence of surface texture on regionally aggregated evaporation and energy partitioning, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 55, 961–972.Google Scholar
Campbell, G.S., & Norman, J.M., 1998: An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics, 2nd edn., Springer-Verlag, New York, 286 pp.Google Scholar
Carrió, G.G., & Cotton, W.R., 2011: Urban growth and aerosol effects on convection over Houston. Part II: Dependence of aerosol effects on instability. Atmospheric Research, 102, 167–174.Google Scholar
Carrió, G.G., Cotton, W.R., & Cheng, W.Y.Y., 2010: Urban growth and aerosol effects on convection over Houston Part I: The August 2000 case. Atmospheric Research, 96, 560–574.Google Scholar
Center for International Earth Science Information Network-CIESIN-Columbia University, 2015: Gridded Population of the World, Version 4 (GPWv4): Population Count. Palisades, NY: NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC).Google Scholar
Čermák, J., Kučera, J., & Nadezhdina, N., 2004: Sap flow measurements with some thermodynamic methods, flow integration within trees and scaling up from sample trees to entire forest stands. Trees, 18, 529–546.Google Scholar
Chandler, T.J., 1965: The Climate of London, Hutchinson, London, 292 pp.Google Scholar
Chandler, T.J., 1967: Absolute and relative humidities in towns. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 48, 394–99.Google Scholar
Chandler, T.J., 1970: Selected bibliography on urban climate, WMO Publ. No. 276, TP 155, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Chandler, T.J., 1976: Urban Climatology and its Relevance to Urban Design, WMO Technical Note No. 149, WMO N. 438, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 61 pp.Google Scholar
Chandler, T.J., 1976: The climate of towns. In: The Climate of the British Isles, Chandler, T.J. and Gregory, S., (eds.), Longman, 307–329.Google Scholar
Chandler, T., & Fox, G., 1974: 3000 Years of Urban Growth, Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 1976: Effects of urban areas and echo merging on radar echo behaviour. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 15, 561–570.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 1978: Urban effects on severe local storms at St. Louis. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 578–586.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 1980: More on the La Porte anomaly: A review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 61, 702–711.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., ed., 1981: METROMEX: A review and summary. Meteorological Monographs, 18 (40), American Meteorological Society, Boston, 181pp.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 1999: A rare long record of deep soil temperatures defines temporal temperature changes and an urban heat island. Climatic Change, 42, 531–538.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 2003: Urban modification of freezing-rain events. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 42, 863–870.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A., 2004: Urban effects on winter snowfall at Chicago and St. Louis. Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical Society, 46, 3–14.Google Scholar
Changnon, S.A. Jr., Huff, F.A., Schickedanz, P.T., & Vogel, J.L., 1977: Summary of METROMEX, Volume 1: Weather Anomalies and Impacts: Illinois State Water Survey, Urban Bulletin 62.Google Scholar
Changnon, S. A., Semonin, R.G., Auer, A.H. Jr., Braham, R.R., & Hales, J., 1981: METROMEX: A Review and Summary. Monograph 18, American Meteorological Society, Boston, 81 pp.Google Scholar
Charpentier, A., 2011: On the return period of the 2003 heat wave. Climatic Change, 109, 245–260Google Scholar
Chow, W., & Roth, M., 2006: Temporal dynamics of the heat island of Singapore. International Journal of Climatology, 26, 2243–60.Google Scholar
Christen, A., 2005: Atmospheric turbulence and surface energy exchange in urban environments, Stratus, 11, Institut Meteorologie, Klimatologie und Fernerkundung, Univ. Basel, Basel, 140 pp.Google Scholar
Christen, A., 2014: Atmospheric measurement techniques to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from cities. Urban Climate, 10, 241–260Google Scholar
Christen, A., & Vogt, R., 2004: Energy and radiation balance of a central European city. International Journal of Climatology, 24, 1395–1421.Google Scholar
Christen, A., van Gorsel, E., & Vogt, R., 2007: Coherent structures in urban roughness sublayer turbulence. International Journal of Climatology, 27, 1955–1968.Google Scholar
Christen, A., Crawford, B., Goodwin, N., et al., 2009: The EPiCC Vancouver Experiment-how do urban vegetation characteristics and garden irrigation control the local-scale energy balance? Proc. of the AMS 8th Symposium on the Urban Environment, Phoenix, AZ, January 11–15, Paper J9.1AGoogle Scholar
Christen, A., Rotach, M.W., Vogt, R., 2009: The budget of turbulent kinetic energy in the urban roughness sublayer. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 131, 193–222.Google Scholar
Christen, A., Coops, N.C., Crawford, B.R., et al., 2011: Validation of modeled carbon-dioxide emissions from an urban neighborhood with direct eddy-covariance measurements. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 6057–6069.Google Scholar
Christen, A., Meier, F., & Scherer, D., 2012: High-frequency fluctuations of surface temperatures in an urban environment. Theoretical Applied Climatology, 108, 301–24.Google Scholar
Christen, A., Oke, T.R., Grimmond, C.S.B., Steyn, D.G., & Roth, M., 2013: 35 years of urban climate research at the ‘Vancouver-Sunset’ flux tower. FLUXNET Newsletter, 35, 29–39.Google Scholar
Churkina, G., 2008: Modeling the carbon cycle of urban systems. Ecological Modelling, 216, 107–113.Google Scholar
Churkina, G., Brown, D.G., & Keoleian, G., 2010: Carbon stored in human settlements: the conterminous United States. Global Change Biology, 16, 135–143.Google Scholar
Cionco, R.M., 1965: A mathematical model for air flow in a vegetative canopy. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 4, 517–522.Google Scholar
Clancy, L., Goodman, P., Sinclair, H., & Dockery, D.W., 2002: Effect of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: an intervention study. Lancet, 360, 1210–14.Google Scholar
Clark, J.R., 1969: Thermal pollution and aquatic life. Scientific American, 220, 19–27.Google Scholar
Clarke, J.F., 1969: The nocturnal urban boundary layer over Cincinnati, Ohio. Monthly Weather Review, 97, 582–589.Google Scholar
Clarke, J.F., Ching, J.K.S., & Godowitch, J.M., 1982: An Experimental Study of Turbulence in an Urban Environment. Technical Report US EPA, Research Triangle Park, N.C., USA.Google Scholar
Cleugh, H.A., & Grimmond, C.S.B., 2012: Urban climates and global climate change. In: The Future of the World’s Climate, Henderson-Sellers, A. and McGuffie, K., (eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 47–76.Google Scholar
Cleugh, H.A., & Oke, T.R., 1986: Suburban-rural energy balance comparisons in summer for Vancouver. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 36, 351–369.Google Scholar
Coceal, O., Thomas, T.G., Castro, I.P., & Belcher, S.E., 2006: Mean flow and turbulence statistics over groups of urban-like cubical obstacles. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 121, 491–519.Google Scholar
Cook, D.G., Strachan, D.P., & Carey, I.M., 1998: Health effects of passive smoking. 9. Parental smoking and spirometric indices in children. Thorax, 53, 884–893.Google Scholar
Coquillat, S., Boussaton, M.-P., Buguet, M., Lambert, D., Ribaud, J.-F., & Berthelot, A., 2013: Lightning ground flash patterns over Paris area between 1992 and 2003: Influence of pollution? Atmospheric Research, 122, 77–92.Google Scholar
Corsmeier, U., Behrendt, R., Drobinski, Ph., & Kottmeier, Ch., 2005: The mistral and its effect on air pollution transport and vertical mixing. Atmospheric Research, 74, 275–302.Google Scholar
Counihan, J., 1975: Adiabatic atmospheric boundary layers: A review and analysis of data from the period 1880–1972. Atmospheric Environment, 9, 871–905.Google Scholar
Coutts, A.M., Beringer, J., & Tapper, N.J., 2007: Impact of increasing urban density on local climate: Spatial and temporal variations in the surface energy balance in Melbourne, Australia. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 477–493.Google Scholar
Coutts, A.M., Tapper, N.J, Beringer, J., Loughnan, M., Demuzere, M., 2012: Watering our cities: the capacity for water sensitive urban design to support urban cooling and improve human thermal comfort in the Australian context. Progress in Physical Geography, 37, 2–28.Google Scholar
Crawford, B.R., & Christen, A., 2014: Spatial source attribution of measured urban eddy covariance CO2 fluxes. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 119, 733–755.Google Scholar
Crawford, B.R., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Christen, A., 2011: Five years of carbon dioxide fluxes measurements in a highly vegetated suburban area. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 896–905.Google Scholar
Crevier, L.-P., & Delage, Y. 2001: METRo: A new model for road-condition forecasting in Canada. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 40, 2026–2037.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P.J., 2004: New directions: the growing urban heat and pollution “island” effect—impact on chemistry and climate. Atmospheric Environment, 38, 3539–3540.Google Scholar
Dabberdt, W.F., Ludwig, F.L., & Johnson, W.B., 1973: Validation and applications of an urban diffusion model for vehicular pollutants. Atmospheric Environment, 7, 603–618.Google Scholar
Dahlkötter, F., Griessbaum, F., Schmidt, A., & Klemm, O., 2010: Direct measurement of CO2 and particle emissions from an urban area. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 19, 565–575.Google Scholar
Daigo, M., & Nagao, T., 1972: Urban Climatology, Asakura-Shoten, Tokyo, 214 pp. [In Japanese]Google Scholar
Davenport, A.G., Grimmond, C.S.B., Oke, T.R., & Wieringa, J., 2000: Estimating the roughness of cities and scattered country. 12th Conference on Applied Climatology, American Meteorological Society, Boston, 96–99.Google Scholar
Davidson, B., 1967: A summary of the New York urban air pollution dynamics research program. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 17, 154–158.Google Scholar
Davis, M.L., & Pearson, J.E., 1970: Modelling urban atmosphere temperature profiles. Atmospheric Environment, 4, 277–288.Google Scholar
Demirel, Y., 2012: Energy: Production, Conversion, Storage, Conservation, and Coupling, Springer, 508 pp.Google Scholar
de Dear, R.J., Arens, E., Hui, Z., & Oguro, M., 1997: Convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients for individual human body segments. International Journal of Biometeorology, 40, 141–156.Google Scholar
de Dear, R.J., & Brager, G.S., 2002: Thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings: revisions to ASHRAE Standard 55. Energy and Buildings, 34, 549–561Google Scholar
DePaul, F.T. & Sheih, C.M., 1986: Measurements of wind velocities in a street canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 20, 455–459.Google Scholar
Dirks, R.A., 1974: Urban atmosphere: warm dry envelope over St. Louis. Journal of Geophysical Research, 79, 3473–3475.Google Scholar
Dixon, P.G., & Mote, T.L., 2003: Patterns and causes of Atlanta’s urban heat island-initiated precipitation. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 42, 1273–1284.Google Scholar
Djuricin, S., Pataki, D.E., & Xu, X., 2010: A comparison of tracer methods for quantifying CO2 sources in an urban region. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, D11303.Google Scholar
Dou, J., Wang, Y., Bornstein, R., & Miao, S., 2015: Observed spatial characteristics of Beijing urban-climate impacts on summer thunderstorms. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 54, 94–105.Google Scholar
Douglas, I., 1983: The Urban Environment, Edward Arnold, London, 229 pp.Google Scholar
Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M., & Rusong, W. (eds.), 2010: The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology, Routledge, London, 688 pp.Google Scholar
Draxler, R., 1986: Simulated and observed influence of the nocturnal urban heat island on the local wind field. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 25, 1125–1133.Google Scholar
Duchêne-Marullaz, P., 1975: Full-scale measurements of atmospheric turbulence in a suburban area. Proceedings 4th International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures. Heathrow, England, 23–31.Google Scholar
Duchêne-Marullaz, P., 1979: Effect of high roughness on the characteristics of turbulence in cases of strong winds. Preprint 5th International Conference on Wind Engineering, Fort Collins, paper II-8, 15 pp.Google Scholar
Duckworth, F.S., & Sandberg, J.S., 1954: The effect of cities upon horizontal and vertical temperature gradients. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 35, 198–207.Google Scholar
Dyer, A.J., & Hicks, B.B., 1970: Flux-gradient relationships in the constant flux layer. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 96, 715–721.Google Scholar
Einarsson, E., & Lowe, A.B., 1955: A Study of Horizontal Temperature Variations in the Winnipeg Area on Nights Favouring Radiational Cooling. Meteorology Division, Department of Transport, CIR-2647, TEC 214, Toronto.Google Scholar
Emmanuel, R., Rosenlund, H., & Johansson, E., 2007: Urban shading – a design option for the tropics? A study in Colombo, Sri Lanka. International Journal of Climatology, 27, 1995–2004.Google Scholar
EPA, 2004: Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., Document NO. EPA 833-R-04-001.Google Scholar
EPA, 2008: Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies. Available at www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-06/documents/basicscompendium.pdfGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Y., & Moran, D.S., 2006: Thermal comfort and the heat stress indices. Industrial Health, 44, 388–398.Google Scholar
Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D., & Williamson, T., 2011: Urban Microclimate: Designing the Spaces between Buildings, Earthscan, London, 266 pp.Google Scholar
Estournel, C., Vehil, R., Guedalia, D., Fontan, J., & Druilhet, A., 1983: Observations and modeling of downward radiative fluxes (solar and infrared) in urban/rural areas. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 22, 134–142.Google Scholar
Eugster, W.J., Rouse, W.R., Pielke, R.A. Sr., et al., 2000: Land-atmosphere energy exchange in Arctic tundra and boreal forest: available data and feedbacks to climate. Global Change Biology, 6, (Suppl. 1), 84–115.Google Scholar
Feigenwinter, C., Vogt, R., & Parlow, E., 1999: Vertical structure of selected turbulence characteristics above an urban canopy. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 62, 51–63.Google Scholar
Feigenwinter, C., Vogt, R., Christen, A., 2012: Eddy covariance measurements over urban areas. In: Eddy Covariance-A Practical Guide to Measurement and Data Analysis, Aubinet, M., Vesala, T., & Papale, D. (eds.), Springer, 377–397.Google Scholar
Feingold, G., Cotton, W., Lohmann, U., & Levin, Z., 2009: Effects of pollution aerosol and biomass burning on clouds and precipitation: Numerical modeling studies. In: Aerosol Pollution Impact on Precipitation, Levin, Z., & Cotton, W.R. (eds.), Springer-Science+Business Media B.V., 243–276.Google Scholar
Fenger, J., 1999: Urban air quality. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4877–4900.Google Scholar
Fenner, D., Meier, F., Scherer, D., & Polze, A., 2014: Spatial and temporal air temperature variability in Berlin, Germany, during the years 2001–2010. Urban Climate, 10, 308–331.Google Scholar
Ferguson, G., & Woodbury, A.D., 2007: Urban heat island in the subsurface, Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L23713.Google Scholar
Fezer, F., 1995: Das Klima der Städte, Justus Perthes Verlag Gotha.Google Scholar
Fiala, D., Havenith, G., Bröde, P., Kampmann, B., & Jendritzky, G., 2012: UTCI-Fiala multi-node model of human heat transfer and temperature regulation. International Journal of Biometeorology, 56, 429–441.Google Scholar
Finn, D., Clawson, K.L., Carter, R.G., Rich, J.D., & Allwine, K.J., 2008: Plume dispersion anomalies in a nocturnal urban boundary layer in complex terrain. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 47, 2857–2878.Google Scholar
Flamant, C., Drobinski, P., Furger, M., et al., 2006: Föhn/cold-pool interactions in the Rhine valley during MAP IOP 15. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 132, 3035–3058.Google Scholar
Folberth, G. A., Rumbold, S.T., Collins, W.J., & Butler, T.M., 2012: Global radiative forcing and megacities. Urban Climate, 1, 4–19.Google Scholar
Font, A., Grimmond, C.S.B., Kotthaus, S., et al., 2015: Daytime CO2 urban surface fluxes from airborne measurements, eddy-covariance observations and emissions inventory in Greater London. Environmental Pollution, 196, 98–106.Google Scholar
Fortuniak, K., 2008: Numerical estimation of the effective albedo of an urban canyon. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 91, 245–258.Google Scholar
Fortuniak, K., Klysik, K., & Wibig, J., 2006: Urban-rural contrasts of meteorological parameters in Łødź, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 84, 91–101.Google Scholar
Fortuniak, K., & Pawlak, W., 2015: Selected spectral characteristics of turbulence over an urbanized area in the centre of Łødź, Poland. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 154, 137–156.Google Scholar
Freitas, E.D., Rozoff, C.M., Cotton, W.R., & Silva Dias, P.L., 2007: Interactions of an urban heat island and sea breeze circulations during winter over the metropolitan area of São Paulo, Brazil. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 122, 43–65.Google Scholar
Frey, C.M., 2010: On the determination of the spatial energy balance of a megacity on the example of Cairo, Egypt. PhD. dissertation, University of Basel, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Frey, C.M., & Parlow, E., 2012: Flux measurements in Cairo. Part 2: On the determination of the spatial radiation and energy balance using ASTER satellite data. Remote Sensing, 4, 2635–2660.Google Scholar
Frey, C.M., Rigo, G., & Parlow, E., 2007: Urban radiation balance of two coastal cities in a hot and dry environment. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28, 2695–2712.Google Scholar
Fujibe, F., 2011: Urban warming in Japanese cities and its relation to climate change monitoring. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 162–173.Google Scholar
Fujibe, F., & Asai, T., 1980: Some features of the surface wind system associated with the Tokyo heat island. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, 58, 149–152.Google Scholar
Gaffen, D., & Bornstein, R.D., 1988: Case study of urban interactions with a synoptic scale cold front. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 38, 185–194.Google Scholar
Gaffin, S.R., Imhoff, M., Rosenzweig, C., et al., 2012: Bright is the new black – multi-year performance of high-albedo roofs in an urban climate. Environmental Research Letters, 7, 014029.Google Scholar
Ganeshan, M., Murtugudde, R., & Imhoff, M.L., 2013: A multi-city analysis of the UHI-influence on warm season rainfall. Urban Climate 6, 1–23.Google Scholar
Garcia-Cueto, R., Jauregui, E., & Tejeda, A., 2003: Urban/rural energy balance observations in a desert city in northern Mexico. Proceedings Fifth International Conference on Urban Climate, ICUC-5, Lodz, Poland, 1 – 5 September 2003.Google Scholar
Garratt, J.R., 1992: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 316 pp.Google Scholar
Garratt, J.R., & Brost, R.A., 1981: Radiative cooling effects within and above the nocturnal boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 38, 2730–2746.Google Scholar
Garratt, J.R., & Segal, M., 1988: On the contribution of atmospheric moisture to dew formation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 45, 209–236.Google Scholar
Gauthier, W. A., Petersen, L.D., Carey, L.D., & Christian, H.R. Jr., 2006: Relationship between cloud-to-ground lightning and precipitation ice mass: A radar study over Houston. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L20803.Google Scholar
Gioli, B., Toscano, P., Lugato, E., et al., 2012: Methane and carbon dioxide fluxes and source partitioning in urban areas: The case study of Florence, Italy. Environmental Pollution, 164, 125–131.Google Scholar
Giometto, M.G., Christen, A., Meneveau, C., Fang, J., Krafczyk, M., & Parlange, M.B., 2016: Spatial characteristics of roughness sublayer mean flow and turbulence over a realistic urban surface. Boundary–Layer Meteorology, doi:10.1007/s10546-016-0157-6.Google Scholar
Girardet, H., 1999: Sustainable cities: A contradiction in terms? In: The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities, Satterthwaite, D., (ed.), Routledge, London, 413–425.Google Scholar
Givoni, B., 1998: Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 464 pp.Google Scholar
Goldbach, A., & Kuttler, W., 2013: Quantification of turbulent heat fluxes for adaptation strategies within urban planning. International Journal of Climatology, 33, 143–159.Google Scholar
Golubiewski, N. E., 2006: Urbanization increases grassland carbon pools: Effects of landscaping in Colorado’s front range. Ecological Applications, 16, 555–571.Google Scholar
Grace, J., 1983: Plant-Atmosphere Relationships. Chapman and Hall, London, 92 pp.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B, & Christen, A., 2012: Flux measurements in urban ecosystems. FluxLetter-Newsletter of Fluxnet, 5(1), 1–7.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., & Oke, T.R., 1986: Urban water balance: 2. Results from a suburb of Vancouver, British Columbia. Water Resources Research, 22, 1404–1412.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., & Oke, T.R., 1995: Comparison of heat fluxes from summertime observations in the suburbs of four North American cities. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34, 873–889.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., & Oke, T.R., 1999a: Aerodynamic properties of urban areas derived from analysis of surface form. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 38, 1262–1292.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., & Oke, T.R., 1999b: Heat storage in urban areas: Local scale observations and evaluation of a simple model. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 38, 922–940.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B. & Oke, T.R., 2002: Turbulent heat fluxes in urban areas: Observations and a local-scale urban meteorological parameterization scheme (LUMPS). Journal of Applied Meteorology, 41, 792–810.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., Cleugh, H.A., & Oke, T.R., 1991: An objective urban heat storage model and its comparison with other schemes. Atmospheric Environment, 25B, 311–326.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., Oke, T.R., & Cleugh, H.A., 1993: The role of “rural” in comparisons of observed suburban-rural flux differences. Proceedings of the Yokohama Symposium on ‘Exchange processes at the land surface for a range of space and time scales’, IAHS Publication, 212, 1–10.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., Souch, C., & Hubble, M.D., 1996: Influence of tree cover on summertime surface energy balance fluxes, San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles. Climate Research, 6, 45 – 57.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., Salmond, J.A., Oke, T.R., Offerle, B.D., & Lemonsu, A., 2004: Flux and turbulence measurements at a densely built-up site in Marseille: Heat, mass (water and carbon dioxide), and momentum. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, D24101.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., King, T., Cropley, F., Nowak, D.J., & Souch, C., 2002: Local-scale fluxes of carbon dioxide in urban environments: methodological challenges and results from Chicago. Environmental Pollution, 116, S243–S254.Google Scholar
Grimmond, C.S.B., Blackett, M., Best, M., et al., 2010: The International Urban Energy Balance Models Comparison Project: First results from Phase 1. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 49, 1268–1292.Google Scholar
Gromke, C., & Ruck, B., 2008: Aerodynamic modelling of trees for small-scale wind tunnel studies. Forestry, 81, 243–258.Google Scholar
Gubareff, G.G., Janssen, J.E., & Torberg, R.H., 1960: Thermal Radiation Properties Survey, Honeywell Research Center, Minneapolis, MN.Google Scholar
Guenther, A.B., Zimmerman, P.R., Harley, P.C., Monson, R.K., & Fall, R., 1993: Isoprene and monoterpene emission rate variability: Model evaluations and sensitivity analyses. Journal of Geophysical Research, 98 (D7), 12609–12617.Google Scholar
Gultepe, I., Tardif, R., Michaelides, S.C., et al., 2007: Fog research: A review of past achievements and future perspectives. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 165, 1121–1159.Google Scholar
Guo, J., Rahn, K.A., & Zhuang, G., 2004: A mechanism for the increase of pollution elements in dust storms in Beijing. Atmospheric Environment, 38, 855–862.Google Scholar
Guttikunda, S. K., Carmichael, G.R., Calori, G., Eck, C., & Woo, J.-H., 2003: The contribution of megacities to regional sulfur pollution in Asia. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 11–22.Google Scholar
Haberlie, A.M., Ashley, W.S., & Pingel, T.J., 2015: The effect of urbanisation on the climatology of thunderstorm initiation. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 141, 663–675.Google Scholar
Haeger-Eugensson, M., & Bolmer, B., 1999: Advection caused by the urban heat island circulation as a regulating factor on the nocturnal urban heat island. International Journal of Climatology, 19, 975–988.Google Scholar
Hage, K.D., 1975: Urban-rural humidity differences. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 14, 1277–83.Google Scholar
Halawaa, E., & van Hoof, J., 2012: The adaptive approach to thermal comfort: A critical overview. Energy and Buildings, 51, 101–110.Google Scholar
Hall, D.J., Macdonald, R., Walker, S., Mavroidis, I., Higson, H., & Griffiths, R.F., 1997: Visualisation Studies of Flows in Simulated Urban Arrays, BRE Client Report CR39/97, Building Research Establishment, UK, 14 pp.Google Scholar
Hallegatte, S., Ranger, N., Bhattacharya, S., et al., 2010: Flood Risks, Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Benefits in Mumbai: An Initial Assessment of Socio-Economic Consequences of Present and Climate Change Induced Flood Risks and of Possible Adaptation Options, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 27, OECD Publishing.Google Scholar
Han, J.-Y., & Baik, J.-J., 2008: A theoretical and numerical study of urban heat island–induced circulation and convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 65, 1859–1877.Google Scholar
Han, J.-Y., Baik, J.-J., & Khain, A.P., 2012: A numerical study of urban aerosol impacts on clouds and precipitation. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 69, 504–520.Google Scholar
Han, J.-Y., Baik, J.-J., & Lee, H., 2014: Urban impacts on precipitation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 50, 17–30.Google Scholar
Hann, J. von, 1885: Über den Temperaturunterscheid zwischen Stadt und Land. Österreichische Gesellschaft für Meteorologie, Zeitschrift, 20, 457–462.Google Scholar
Hann, J. von, 1895: Die Unterschiede der meteorologischen Elemente in der Stadt Paris und ausserhalbe derselben. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 12, 37–38.Google Scholar
Hanna, S.R., White, J., & Zhou, Y., 2007: Observed winds, turbulence, and dispersion in built-up downtown areas of Oklahoma City and Manhattan. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 125, 441–468.Google Scholar
Harman, I.N., Best, M.J., & Belcher, S.E., 2004: Radiative exchange in an urban street canyon. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 110, 301–316.Google Scholar
Helbig, A., Baumüller, J., & Kerschgens, M., (eds.), 1999: Stadtklima und Luftreinhaltung, Springer, Berlin, 467 pp.Google Scholar
Hellmann, G., 1892: Resultate des Regenmessversuchsfeldes bei Berlin 1885–1891. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 9, 173–181.Google Scholar
Hendel, M., Colombert, M., Diab, Y., & Royon, L., 2015: An analysis of pavement heat flux to optimize the water efficiency of a pavement-watering method. Applied Thermal Engineering, 78, 658–669.Google Scholar
Herz, R.K., 1988: Considering climatic factors for urban land use planning in the Sahelian zone. Energy and Buildings, 11, 91–101.Google Scholar
Hildebrand, P.H., & Ackerman, B., 1984: Urban effects on the convective boundary layer. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 41, 76–91.Google Scholar
Hinkel, K.M., Nelson, F.E., Klene, A.E., & Bell, J.H., 2003: The urban heat island in winter at Barrow, Alaska. International Journal of Climatology, 23, 1889–1905.Google Scholar
Hobbs, P.V., 2000: Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry, Cambridge University Press, New York, 262 pp.Google Scholar
Högström, U., Bergström, H., Alexandersson, H., 1982: Turbulence characteristics in a near-neutrally stratified urban atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 23, 449–472.Google Scholar
Högström, U., Taesler, R., Karlsson, S., Enger, L., & Smedman-Högström, A.-S., 1978: The Uppsala Urban Meteorology Project. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 15, 69–80.Google Scholar
Holmer, B., & Eliasson, I., 1999: Urban-rural vapour pressure differences and their role in the development of urban heat islands. International Journal of Climatology, 19, 989–1009.Google Scholar
Holmer, B., Thorsson, S., & Lindén, J., 2013: Evening evapotranspirative cooling in relation to vegetation and urban geometry in the city of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. International Journal of Climatology, 33, 3089–3105.Google Scholar
Höppe, P., 1999: The physiological equivalent temperature–a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment. International Journal of Biometeorology, 43, 71–75.Google Scholar
Howard, L., 1818: The Climate of London, Vol.1, London.Google Scholar
Howard, L., 1820: The Climate of London, Vol.2, London.Google Scholar
Howard, L., 1833: The Climate of London, Vol.1–3, Harvey and Darton, London.Google Scholar
Huff, F.A., 1977: 1971–1975 Rainfall pattern comparisons. In: Summary of METROMEX, Vol. 1, Weather Anomalies and Impacts, Changnon, S.A., et al. (eds.), Illinois State Water Survey Bulletin, 62, Urbana IL, 13–29.Google Scholar
Huff, F.A., 1978: Radar analysis of urban effects on rainfall. In: Summary of METROMEX, Vol. 2, Causes of Precipitation Anomalies, Ackerman, B. et al. (eds.), Illinois State Water Survey Bulletin, 63, Urbana IL, 45–52.Google Scholar
Hughes, M., & Hall, A., 2010: Local and synoptic mechanisms causing Southern California’s Santa Ana winds. Climate Dynamics, 34, 847–857.Google Scholar
Hunt, J.C.R., Abell, C.J., Peterka, J.A., & Woo, H., 1978: Kinematical studies of the flows around free or surface-mounted obstacles: applying topology to flow visualization. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 86, Pt. 1, 179–200.Google Scholar
Hupfer, P., & Chmielewski, F.-M., (eds)., 1990: Das Klima von Berlin, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 288 pp. [In German]Google Scholar
Hussain, M., & Lee, B.E., 1980: An investigation of wind forces on three-dimensional roughness elements in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer flow: Part II Flow over large arrays of identical roughness elements and the effect of frontal and side aspect ratio variations, Report BS 56, Dept. Building Science, Univ. of Sheffield.Google Scholar
Idso, C., Idso, S., & Balling, R., 2001: An intensive two-week study of an urban CO2 dome in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 995–1000.Google Scholar
Imamura, G., 1949: Air-raids disastrous fire and urban temperature of Tokyo. Kagaku, 19, 273–275.Google Scholar
Imhoff, M.L., Zhang, P., Wolfe, R.E., & Bounoua, L., 2010: Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sensing of Environment, 114, 504–513.Google Scholar
IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K, & Reisinger, A., (eds.), IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp.Google Scholar
IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., , M. et al., (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 3–29.Google Scholar
IPCC, 2014: Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., et al. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, 1–32.Google Scholar
Jacovides, C.P., Steven, M.D., & Asimakopoulos, D.N., 2000: Solar spectral irradiance under clear skies around a major metropolitan area. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 39, 917–930.Google Scholar
Järvi, L., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Christen, A., 2011: The Surface Urban Energy and Water Balance Scheme (SUEWS): Evaluation in Los Angeles and Vancouver. Journal of Hydrology, 411, 219–237.Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., 1973: The urban climate of Mexico City. Erdkunde, 27, 298–307.Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., 1990/91: Effects of revegetation and new artificial water bodies on the climate of northeast Mexico City. Energy and Buildings, 15–16, 447–455.Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., 1990/91: Influence of a large urban park on temperature and convective precipitation in a tropical city. Energy and Buildings, 15–16, 457–463.Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., 1993: Bibliography of Urban Climate in Tropical/Subtropical areas, WCASP 25, WMO/TD No. 552, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., 1996: Bibliography of Urban Climatology for the Period 1992 – 1995, WMO/TD No. 759, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Jáuregu, E., 2000: El Clima de la Ciudad de México, Plaza y Valdez, México, D. F., 129 pp. [In Spanish]Google Scholar
Jáuregui, E., & Tejeda, A., 1997: Urban-rural humidity contrasts in Mexico City. International Journal of Climatology, 17, 187–196.Google Scholar
Johansson, E., 2006: Influence of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort in a hot dry climate: A study in Fez, Morocco. Building and Environment, 41, 1326–1338.Google Scholar
Johnson, G.T., & Watson, I.D., 1984: The determination of view-factors in urban canyons. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 23, 329–335.Google Scholar
Johnson, W.B., Ludwig, F.L., Dabberdt, W.F., & Allen, R.J, 1973: An urban diffusion simulation model for carbon monoxide. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 23, 490–498.Google Scholar
Kaimal, J.C., & Finnigan, J.J., 1994: Atmospheric Boundary Layer Flows, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 289 pp.Google Scholar
Kanda, M., 2012: Urban Weather and Climate, Meteorological Monograph, 224, Meteorological Society of Japan, 296 pp. [In Japanese]Google Scholar
Kanda, M., & Moriizumi, T., 2009: Momentum and heat transfer over urban-like surfaces. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 131, 385–401.Google Scholar
Kanda, M., Moriwaki, R., Roth, M., & Oke, T.R., 2002: Area-averaged sensible heat flux and a new method to determine zero-plane displacement length over an urban surface using scintillometry. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 105, 177–193.Google Scholar
Kanda, M., Kanega, M., Kawai, T., Moriwaki, R., & Sugawara, H., 2007: Roughness lengths for momentum and heat derived from outdoor urban scale models. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 1067–1079.Google Scholar
Kandlikar, M., & Ramachandran, G., 2000: The causes and consequences of particulate air pollution in urban India: A synthesis of the science. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 25, 629–684.Google Scholar
Kastner-Klein, P., Berkowicz, R., & Britter, R., 2004: The influence of street architecture on flow and dispersion in street canyon. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 87, 121–131.Google Scholar
Kataoka, K., Matsumoto, F., Ichinose, T., & Taniguchi, M., 2009: Urban warming trends in several large Asian cities over the last 100 years. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 3112–3119.Google Scholar
Kawai, T., Ridwan, M. K., & Kanda, M., 2009: Evaluation of the simple urban energy balance model using selected data from 1-yr flux observations at two cities. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 48, 693–715.Google Scholar
Kawamura, T., 1964: Some consideration on the cause of city temperature at Kumagaya City. Geographical Review of Japan, 37, 560–565Google Scholar
Kawamura, T., 1985: Recent changes of atmospheric environment in Tokyo and its surrounding area. Geographical Review of Japan, 58B, 83–95.Google Scholar
Keatinge, W.R., Donaldson, G.C., Cordioli, E., et al. 2000: Heat related mortality in warm and cold regions of Europe: Observational study. British Medical Journal, 321, 670–673.Google Scholar
Kellett, R., Christen, A., Coops, N.C., et al., 2013: A systems approach to carbon cycling and emissions modeling at an urban neighborhood scale. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 48–58Google Scholar
Kelliher, F.M., Leuning, R., Raupach, M.R., & Schultze, E.-D., 1995: Maximum conductances for evaporation from global vegetation types, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 73, 1–16.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C.A., Ramaswami, A., Carney, S., & Dhakai, S., 2010: Greenhouse gas emission baselines for global cities and metropolitan regions. In Freire, D. M., et al. (eds.) Cities and Climate Change: Responding to an Urgent Agenda. Hoornweg, The World Bank, 15–54.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C., Steinberger, J., Gasson, B., et al., 2009: Greenhouse gas emissions from global cities. Environmental Science & Technology, 43, 7297–7302.Google Scholar
Kenworthy, J.R., 2006: The eco-city: ten key transport and planning dimensions for sustainable city development. Environment and Urbanization, 18, 67–85.Google Scholar
Koenig, L.R., 1981: Anomalous snowfall caused by natural-draft cooling towers. Atmospheric Environment, 15, 1117–1128.Google Scholar
Koerner, B., & Klopatek, J., 2002: Anthropogenic and natural CO2 emission sources in an arid urban environment. Environmental Pollution, 116, S45-S51.Google Scholar
Komp, M.J., & Auer, A.H. Jr., 1978: Visibility reduction and accompanying aerosol evolution downwind of St. Louis. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 1357–1367.Google Scholar
Kondrat’yev, K. Ya., 1973: The Complete Atmospheric Energetics Experiment. GARP Public. Series, No.12, ICSU, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Kordowski, K., & Kuttler, W. 2010: Carbon dioxide fluxes over an urban park area. Atmospheric Environment. 44, 2722–2730.Google Scholar
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F., 2006: World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meterologische Zeitschrift, 15, 259–263.Google Scholar
Kotthaus, S., Smith, T.E.L., Wooster, M.J., & Grimmond, C.S.B., 2014: Derivation of an urban materials spectral library through emittance and reflectance spectroscopy. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 94, 194–212.Google Scholar
Kratzer, A., 1937: Das Stadtklima, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig, 143 pp. [In German]Google Scholar
Kratzer, P.A., 1956: The Climate of Cities (Das Stadtklima). American Meteorological Society.Google Scholar
Kratzer, A., 1956: Das Stadtklima, 2nd edn., Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig, 184 pp. [In German]Google Scholar
Krayenhoff, E.S., & Voogt, J.A., 2007: A microscale three-dimensional urban energy balance model for studying surface temperatures. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 123, 433–461.Google Scholar
Krayenhoff, E.S., Christen, A., Martilli, A. & Oke, T.R., 2014: A multi-layer radiation model for urban neighbourhoods with trees. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 151, 139–178.Google Scholar
Krayenhoff, E.S., Santiago, J.-L., Martilli, A., Christen, A., & Oke, T.R., 2015: Parametrization of drag and turbulence for urban neighbourhoods with trees. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 156, 157–189.Google Scholar
Kremser, V., 1886: Vortrag über das Klima von Berlin. Festschrift d.59 vers d. d. Naturf. und Ärtze. Berlin, 37–38.Google Scholar
Kremser, V., 1908: Der Einfluß der Großstädte auf der Luftfeuchtigkeit, Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 25, 206–215.Google Scholar
Kremser, V., 1909: Ergebnisse vieljähriger Windregistrierungen in Berlin, Vortrag über das Klima von Berlin, Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 26, 259–265.Google Scholar
Krishan, A., 1996: The habitat of two deserts in India: hot-dry desert of Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) and the cold-dry high altitude mountainous desert of Leh (Ladakh). Energy and Buildings, 23, 217–229.Google Scholar
Krzysztof, B., Jendritzky, G., Bröde, P., et al., 2013: An introduction to the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). Geographia Polonica, 86, 5–10.Google Scholar
Kuc, T., Rozanski, K., Zimnoch, M., Necki, J.M., & Korus, A, 2003: Anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and CH4 in an urban environment. Applied Energy, 75, 193–203.Google Scholar
Kusaka, H., Nawata, K., Suzuki-Parker, A., Takane, Y., & Furuhashi, N., 2014: Mechanism of precipitation increase with urbanization in Tokyo as revealed by ensemble climate simulations. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 53, 824–839.Google Scholar
Kuttler, W., Miethke, J., Dütemeyer, D., & Barlag, A.-B., 2015: Das Klima von Essen, Westarp Wissenschaften, 249 pp.Google Scholar
Kuttler, W., Weber, S., Schonnefeld, J., & Hesselschwerdt, A., 2007: Urban/rural atmospheric water vapour pressure differences and urban moisture excess in Krefeld, Germany. International Journal of Climatology, 27, 2005–2015.Google Scholar
Kuttler, W., & Strassburger, A., 1999: Air quality measurements in urban green areas-a case study. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4101–4108.Google Scholar
Kwartler, M., & Masters, R., 1984: Daylight as a zoning device for midtown. Energy and Buildings, 6, 173–189.Google Scholar
Lagouarde, J-P., Moreau, P., Irvine, M., Bonnefond, J-M., Voogt, J.A., & Solliec, F., 2004: Airborne experimental measurements of the angular variations in surface temperature over urban areas: case study of Marseille (France). Remote Sensing of Environment, 93, 443–462.Google Scholar
Lagouarde, J-P., Hénon, A., Kurz, B., et al., 2010: Modelling daytime thermal infrared directional anisotropy over Toulouse city centre, Remote Sensing of Environment, 114, 87–105.Google Scholar
Lamptey, B., 2010: An analytical framework for estimating the urban effect on climate. International Journal of Climatology, 30, 72–88.Google Scholar
Landsberg, H.E., 1956: The climate of towns. In: Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, Thomas, W.L. (ed.), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 584–606.Google Scholar
Landsberg, H.E., 1962: City air – better or worse. In: Symposium: Air over Cities, US Public Health Service, Taft Sanitary Eng. Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, Tech. Rept. A62–5, 1–22Google Scholar
Landsberg, H.E., 1970: Man-made climatic changes, Science, 170, 1265–1274.Google Scholar
Landsberg, H., 1973: The meteorologically utopian city. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 54, 86–89.Google Scholar
Landsberg, H.E., 1981: The Urban Climate, Academic Press, New York, 269 pp.Google Scholar
Lareau, N.P., Crosman, E., Whiteman, C.D., et al., 2013: The persistent cold-air pool study. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 94, 51–63.Google Scholar
Lauscher, F., 1934: Wärmeausstrahlung über Horizonteinengung. Sitz. Akad. in Wien, 143, 503–519.Google Scholar
Lauscher, F., 1959: Witterung und Klima von Linz, Wetter und Leben, No. 6, 235 pp.Google Scholar
Lavery, S., & Donovan, B., 2005: Flood risk management in the Thames Estuary looking ahead 100 years. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 363, 1455–1474.Google Scholar
Lazar, R., & Podessor, A., 1999: An urban climate analysis of Graz and its significance for urban planning in the tributary valleys east of Graz (Austria). Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4195–4209.Google Scholar
Lebassi, B., Gonzalez, J., Fabris, D., et al., 2009: Observed 1970–2005 cooling of summer daytime temperatures in coastal California. Journal of Climate, 22, 3558–3573.Google Scholar
Lee, J.K., Christen, A., Ketler, R., & Nesic, Z., 2017: A mobile sensor network to map carbon dioxide emissions in urban environments. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 10, 645–665, doi:10.5194/amt-10-645-2017.Google Scholar
Lee, T.F., 1987: Urban clear islands in Central Valley fog. Monthly Weather Review, 115, 1794–96.Google Scholar
Lemonsu, A., & Masson, V., 2002: Simulation of summer urban breeze over Paris. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 104, 463–490.Google Scholar
Lemonsu, A., Masson, V., & Berthier, E., 2007: Improvement of the hydrological component of an urban-soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer model. Hydrological Processes, 21, 2100–2111.Google Scholar
Lemonsu, A., Kounkou-Arnaud, R., Desplat, J., Salagnac, J.L., & Masson, V., 2013: Evolution of the Parisian urban climate under a global changing climate. Climatic Change, 116, 679–692.Google Scholar
Lemonsu, A., Bélair, S., Mailhot, J., et al., 2008: Overview and first results of the Montréal Urban Snow Experiment 2005. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 47, 59–75.Google Scholar
Lenzholzer, S., 2015: Weather in the City: How Design Shapes the Urban Climate. Published by nai010, Netherlands 216 pp.Google Scholar
Lerner, D.N., 2002: Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeology Journal, 10, 143–152.Google Scholar
Lettau, H.H., 1970: Problems of micrometeorological measurements (on degree of control in out-of-door experiments). In: The Collection and Processing of Field Data, Bradley, E.F. & Denmead, O.T., (eds.), Interscience, New York, 3–40.Google Scholar
Lewis, J.E., & Carlson, T.N., 1989: Spatial variations in regional surface energy exchange patterns for Montréal, Québec. The Canadian Geographer, 33, 194–203.Google Scholar
Li, D., & Bou-Zeid, E., 2013: Synergistic interactions between urban heat islands and heat waves: the impact in cities is larger than the sum of its parts. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 52, 2051–2064.Google Scholar
Li, T., Horton, R.M., & Kinney, P.L., 2013: Projections of seasonal patterns in temperature-related deaths for Manhattan, New York. Nature Climate Change, 3, 717–721.Google Scholar
Li, X.-X., Liu, C.-H., Leung, D.Y.C., & Lam, K.M., 2006: Recent progress in CFD modelling of wind field and pollutant transport in street canyons. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 5640–5658.Google Scholar
Li, X., Xia, X., Wang, L., et al., 2015: The role of foehn in the formation of heavy air pollution events in Urumqi, China. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 120, 5371–5384.Google Scholar
Li, Z., Niu, F., Fan, J., Liu, Y., Rosenfeld, D., & Ding, Y., 2011: Long-term impacts of aerosols on the vertical development of clouds and precipitation. Nature Geoscience, 4, 888–894.Google Scholar
Lichtfouse, E., Lichtfouse, M., Kashgarian, M., & Bol, R., 2005: 14C of grasses as an indicator of fossil fuel CO2 pollution. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 3, 78–81.Google Scholar
Liezke, B., & Vogt, R., 2013: Variability of CO2 concentrations and fluxes in and above an urban street canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 74, 60–72.Google Scholar
Lietzke, B., Vogt, R., Feigenwinter, C., & Parlow, E., 2015: On the controlling factors for the variability of carbon dioxide flux in a heterogeneous urban environment. International Journal of Climatology, 35, 3921–3941.Google Scholar
Lindberg, F., 2007: Modelling the urban climate using a local governmental geo-database. Meteorological Applications, 14, 263–273.Google Scholar
Lindqvist, S., 1968: Studies on the local climate in Lund and its environs. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 50, 79–93.Google Scholar
Littlefair, P., 2011: Site Layout Planning for Daylight and Sunlight, BR209, 2nd Ed. BRE, 84 pp.Google Scholar
Littlefair, P., Santamouris, M., Alvarez, S., et al., 2000: Environmental Site Layout Planning: Solar Access, Microclimate and Passive Cooling in Urban Areas. Construction Research Communications Ltd., 151 pp.Google Scholar
Lokoshchenko, M.A., 2005: About meteorological observations at the observatory of Moscow State University and their / representativeness of. Vestnik of the Moscow State University, Series 5 Geography, 6, 25–31. [in Russian]Google Scholar
Loose, T., & Bornstein, R.D., 1977: Observations of mesoscale effects on frontal movement through and urban area. Monthly Weather Review, 105, 563–571.Google Scholar
Lowry, W.P., 1977: Empirical estimation of urban effects on climate: a problem analysis. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 16, 129–135.Google Scholar
Lowry, W.P., 1988: Atmospheric Ecology for Designers and Planners, Peavine Publications, McMinnville, Oregon.Google Scholar
Lowry, W.P., 1998: Urban effects on precipitation amount. Progress in Physical Geography, 22, 477–520.Google Scholar
Lowry, W.P., & Lowry, P.P., 2001: Fundamentals of Biometeorology: 2. The Biological Environment, Peavine Press, McMinnville, OR, 680 pp.Google Scholar
Macdonald, R.W., 2000: Modelling the mean velocity profile in the urban canopy layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 97, 25–45.Google Scholar
Malhi, Y., 1996: The behaviour of the roughness length for temperature over heterogeneous surfaces. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 122, 1095–1125.Google Scholar
Malmstadt, J.C., Elsner, J.B., & Jagger, T.H., 2010: Risk of strong hurricane winds to Florida cities. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 49, 2121–2132.Google Scholar
Martilli, A., 2014: An idealized study of city structure, urban climate, energy consumption, and air quality. Urban Climate, 10, 430–446.Google Scholar
Martilli, A., & Santiago, J., 2007: CFD simulation of airflow over a regular array of cubes. Part II: analysis of spatial average properties. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 122, 635–654.Google Scholar
Martilli, A., Clappier, A., & Rotach, M.W., 2002: An urban surface exchange parameterisation for mesoscale models. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 104, 261–304.Google Scholar
Martinelli, L., Lin, T.P., & Matzarakis, A., 2015: Assessment of the influence of daily shadings pattern on human thermal comfort and attendance in Rome during summer period. Building and Environment, 92, 30–38.Google Scholar
Martinuzzi, R., & Tropea, C., 1993: The flow around surface-mounted, prismatic obstacles placed in a fully developed channel flow. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 115, 85–92.Google Scholar
Masson, V., 2000: A physically-based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 94, 357–397.Google Scholar
Masson, V., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Oke, T.R., 2002: Evaluation of the Town Energy Balance (TEB) scheme with direct measurements from dry districts in two cities. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 41, 1011–1026.Google Scholar
Masson, V., Gomes, L., Pigeon, G., et al., 2008: The Canopy and Aerosol Particles Interactions in TOulouse Urban Layer (CAPITOUL) experiment. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 102, 135–157.Google Scholar
Masson, V., Marchadier, C., Adolphe, L., et al., 2014: Adapting cities to climate change: A systemic modelling approach. Urban Climate, 10, 407–429.Google Scholar
Matese, A., Gioli, B., Vaccari, F., Zaldei, A., & Miglietta, F., 2009: Carbon dioxide emissions of the city center of Firenze, Italy: Measurement, evaluation, and source partitioning. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 48, 1940–1947.Google Scholar
Matzarakis, A., Mayer, H., & Iziomon, M.G., 1999: Applications of a universal thermal index: physiological equivalent temperature. International Journal of Biometeorology, 43, 76–84.Google Scholar
Matzarakis, A., Rutz, F., & Mayer, H., 2010: Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments: basics of the RayMan model. International Journal of Biometeorology, 54, 131–139.Google Scholar
Mayer, P.W., DeOreo, W.B., Opitz, E.M., et al., 1999: The Residential End-uses of Water, Published by the AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association, 310 pp.Google Scholar
Maykut, G.A., 1985: An introduction to ice in the polar oceans. Report 2nd printing, APL-UW 8510, Dept. Atmos. Sci., Univ. Washington, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Mays, K.L., Shepson, P.B., Stirm, B.H., Karion, A., Sweeney, C., & Gurney, K.R., 2009: Aircraft-based measurements of the carbon footprint of Indianapolis. Environmental Science & Technology, 43, 7816–7823.Google Scholar
McCarthy, M.P., Best, M.J., & Betts, R.A., 2010: Climate change in cities due to global warming and urban effects. Geophysical Research Letters, 37, L09705.Google Scholar
McGee, T.G. 1991: The Emergence of Desakota Regions in Asia: Expanding a Hypothesis, p3–25 in Ginsburg, N., Koppel, B., & McGee, T.G., (eds.), 1991: The Extended Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 352 pp.Google Scholar
McGregor, G.R., Belcher, S., Hacker, J., et al., 2006: London’s Urban Heat Island. A Report to the Greater London Authority, Centre for Environmental Assessment, Management and Policy, King’s College London, 110 pp.Google Scholar
McNaughton, K.G., & Jarvis, P.G., 1983: Predicting effects of vegetation changes on transpiration and evapotranspiration. In: Water Deficit and Plant Growth, Vol. 7, Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.), Academic Press, 1–47.Google Scholar
McPherson, E.G., Nowak, D., Heisler, G., et al., 1997: Quantifying urban forest structure, function, and value: the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Urban Ecosystems, 1, 49–61.Google Scholar
Meinders, E.R., Hanjalic, K., & Martinuzzi, R.J., 1999: Experimental study of the local convection heat transfer from a wall-mounted cube in turbulent channel flow. Journal of Heat Transfer, 121, 564-573.Google Scholar
Menberg, K., Bayer, P., Zosseder, K., Rumohr, S., & Blum, P., 2013: Subsurface urban heat islands in German cities. Science of the Total Environment, 442, 123–133.Google Scholar
Meroney, R.N., 1982: Turbulent diffusion near buildings. In: Engineering Meteorology, Plate, E. (ed.), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 481–525.Google Scholar
Mestayer, P., Durand, P., Augustin, P., et al., 2005: The urban boundary-layer field campaign in Marseille (UBL/CLU-ESCOMPTE): set-up and first results. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 114, 315–365.Google Scholar
Meyn, S., & Oke, T.R., 2009: Heat fluxes through roofs and their relevance to estimates of urban heat storage. Energy and Buildings, 41, 745–752.Google Scholar
Miles, J.C., 2001: Temporal variation of radon levels in houses and implications for radon measurement strategies. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 93, 369–376.Google Scholar
Mills, G., 1997a: An urban canopy-layer model. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 57, 229–244.Google Scholar
Mills, G., 1997b: Building density and interior building temperatures: A physical scale modeling experiment. Physical Geography, 18, 195–214.Google Scholar
Mills, G., 2008: Luke Howard and the climate of London. Weather, 63, 153–157.Google Scholar
Mills, G., Cleugh, H., Emmanuel, R., et al., 2010: Climate information for improved planning and management of mega cities (needs perspective). Procedia Environmental Sciences, 1, 228–246.Google Scholar
Modelski, G., 2003: World Cities,-3000 to 2000, FAROS 2000, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Mölders, N., & Olson, M.A., 2004: Impact of urban effects on precipitation in high latitudes. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 5, 409–429.Google Scholar
Monteith, J.L., & Unsworth, M.H., 2008: Principles of Environmental Physics, 3rd edn., Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts, 418 pp.Google Scholar
Moriwaki, R., & Kanda, M., 2004: Seasonal and diurnal fluxes of radiation, heat, water vapor, and carbon dioxide over a suburban area. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 43, 1700–1710.Google Scholar
Moriwaki, R., & Kanda, M., 2005: Flux-gradient profiles for momentum and heat over an urban surface. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 84. 127–135.Google Scholar
Moriwaki, R., Kanda, M., Senoo, H., Hagishima, A., & Kinouchi, T., 2008: Anthropogenic water vapor emissions in Tokyo. Water Resources Research, 44 (11).Google Scholar
Mount, L.E., 1979: Adaptation to Thermal Environment: Man and His Productive Animals. Edward Arnold, London, 333 pp.Google Scholar
Moya, J., Phillips, L., Schuda, L., et al., 2011: Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition. US Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar
Müller, N., Kuttler, W., & Barlag, A.B., 2014: Counteracting urban climate change: adaptation measures and their effect on thermal comfort. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 115, 243–257.Google Scholar
Munn, R.E., 1966: Descriptive Micrometeorology, Academic Press, New York, 253 pp.Google Scholar
Munn, R.E., 1970: Airflow in urban areas. WMO Tech. Note 108, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 15–39.Google Scholar
Munn, R.E., 1973: Urban meteorology: some selected topics. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 54, 90–93.Google Scholar
Munoz, R.C., & Undurraga, A.A., 2010: Daytime mixed layer over the Santiago Basin: Description of two years of observations with lidar data. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 49, 1728–1741.Google Scholar
Murakami, S., 1982: Wind tunnel modeling applied to pedestrian comfort. In: Wind Tunnel Modelling for Civil Engineering Applications, Reinhold, T.A. (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 486–503.Google Scholar
Myrup, L.O., 1969: A numerical model of the urban heat island. Journal of Applied Meteorology 8, 908–918.Google Scholar
Nakayoshi, M., Moriwaki, R., Kawai, T., & Kanda, M., 2009: Experimental study on rainfall interception over an outdoor urban-scale model. Water Resources Research, 45, W04415.Google Scholar
Nakayoshi, M., Kanda, M., Shi, R., & de Dear, R., 2015: Outdoor thermal physiology along human pathways: a study using a wearable measurement system. International Journal of Biometeorology, 59, 503–515.Google Scholar
Nazaroff, W.W., 1992: Radon transport from soil to air. Reviews of Geophysics, 30, 137–160.Google Scholar
Nelson, M.A., Pardyjak, E.R., Klewicki, J.C., Pol, S.U., & Brown, M.J., 2007: Properties of the wind field within the Oklahoma City Park Avenue street canyon. Part I: Mean flow and turbulence statistics. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 2038–2054.Google Scholar
Nemitz, E., Hargreaves, K., McDonald, A., Dorsey, J.R., & Fowler, D., 2002: Meteorological measurements of the urban heat budget and CO2 emissions on a city scale. Environmental Science & Technology, 36, 3139–3146.Google Scholar
Newman, P., & Kenworthy, J., 1989: Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook, Gower, U.K., 388 pp.Google Scholar
Newton, T.L., Oke, T.R., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Roth, M., 2007: The suburban energy balance in Miami, Florida. Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography, 89A, 331–347.Google Scholar
Ng, E., 2009: Policies and technical guidelines for urban planning of high-density cities – air ventilation assessment (AVA) of Hong Kong. Building and Environment, 44, 1478–1488.Google Scholar
Nicholls, N.J., Hanson, S., Herweijer, C., et al., 2008: Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates. Environment Working Papers No. 1, Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development.Google Scholar
Nishimura, N., Nomura, T., Iyota, H., & Kimoto, S., 1998: Novel water facilities for creation of comfortable urban micrometeorology. Solar Energy, 64, 197–207.Google Scholar
Niyogi, D., & Schmid, P., 2014: The history and future of the La Porte anomaly. Stanley, A. Changnon Symposium, AMS 94th Annual Meeting, Paper TJ6.3. Available online at: https://ams.confex.com/ams/94Annual/webprogram/Paper235964.htmlGoogle Scholar
Niyogi, D., Pyle, P., Lei, M., et al., 2011: Urban modification of thunderstorms: An observational storm climatology and model case study for the Indianapolis urban region. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 50, 1129–1144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordbo, A., Järvi, L., Haapanala, S., Moilanen, J., & Vesala, T., 2013: Intra-city variation in urban morphology and turbulence structure in Helsinki, Finland. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 146, 469–496.Google Scholar
Nowak, D.J., & Crane, D.E., 2002: Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution, 116, 381–389.Google Scholar
Nowak, D.J., & Dwyer, J.F., J.F., 2007: Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems. In: Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast, Kuser, J.E. (ed.), Springer Netherlands, 25–46.Google Scholar
Nunez, M. & Oke, T.R., 1977: The energy balance of an urban canyon, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 16, 11–19.Google Scholar
OECD, 2012: Compact City Policies: A Comparative Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris.Google Scholar
Offerle, B.D., Jonsson, P., Eliasson, I., & Grimmond, C.S.B., 2005a: Urban modification of the surface energy balance in the West African Sahel: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Journal of Climate, 18, 3983–3995.Google Scholar
Offerle, B., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Fortuniak, K., 2005b: Heat storage and anthropogenic heat flux in relation to the energy balance of a central European city centre. International Journal of Climatology, 25, 1405–1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offerle, B.D., Grimmond, C.S.B., Fortuniak, K., Kłysik, K., & Oke, T.R., 2005c: Temporal variations in heat fluxes over a central European city centre. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 84, 103–115.Google Scholar
Offerle, B.D., Grimmond, C.S.B., Fortuniak, K., & Pawlak, W., 2006: Intraurban differences of surface energy fluxes in a central European city. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 45, 125–136.Google Scholar
Oikawa, S., & Meng, Y., 1995: Turbulence characteristics and organized motion in a suburban roughness sublayer. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 74, 289–312.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1973: City size and the urban heat island. Atmospheric Environment, 7, 769–779.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1974: Review of urban climatology, 1968–1973. WMO Tech. Note 134, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1976: The distinction between canopy and boundary-layer urban heat islands. Atmosphere, 14, 268–277.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1979: Review of urban climatology, 1973–1976. WMO Tech. Note 169, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1981: Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: comparison of scale model and field observations. Journal of Climatology, 1, 237–254.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1982: The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society, 108, 1–24.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1983: Bibliography of urban climate, 1977–1980. WCP No. 45, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1984: Methods in urban climatology. In: Applied Climatology. Zürcher Geographische Schriften, 14, 19–29.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1987: Boundary Layer Climates, 2nd edn., Routledge, London, 435 pp.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1988a: The urban energy balance. Progress in Physical Geography, 12, 471–508.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1988b: Street design and urban canopy layer climate. Energy and Buildings, 11, 103–113.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1989: The micrometeorology of the urban forest, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, 324, 335–351.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1990: Bibliography of urban climate, 1981–1988. WCAP No. 15, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1995: The heat island of the urban boundary layer: characteristics, causes and effects. In: Wind Climate in Cities. Cermak, J.E., Davenport, A.G., Plate, E.J. and Viegas, D.X., (eds.), Kluwer Academic, 81–102.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 1997: Urban environments, In: The Surface Climates of Canada, Bailey, W.G., Oke, T.R., & Rouse, W.R. (eds.), McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montréal, 303–327.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., 2004: Initial guidance to obtain representative meteorological observations at urban sites, Instruments and Methods of Observation Programme, IOM Report No. 81, WMO/TD No. 1250, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 51 pp. http://www.wmo.int/web/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-81/IOM-81-UrbanMetObs.pdfGoogle Scholar
Oke, T.R., 2008: Urban observations. In: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation, Part II-Observing Systems, Chapter 11, WMO-No.8, 7th Edition, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, II-11-1 – II-11–25.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., & East, C., 1971: The urban boundary layer in Montréal. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 1, 411–437.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., & Fuggle, R.F., 1972: Comparison of urban/rural counter and net radiation at night. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 2, 290–308.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., Johnson, G.T., Steyn, D.G., & Watson, I.D., 1991: Simulation of surface urban heat islands under ‘ideal’ conditions at night. Part 2: Diagnosis of causation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 56, 339–358.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Spronken-Smith, R.A., On the confounding role of rural wetness in assessing urban effects on climate. Proceedings of the AMS 2nd Symposium on the Urban Environment Symposium, Albuquerque, NM, November 2–6, 59–62.Google Scholar
Oke, T.R., Spronken-Smith, R.A., Jauregui, E., Grimmond, C.S.B., 1999: The energy balance of central Mexico City during the dry season. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 3919–3930.Google Scholar
Oleson, K.W., Bonan, G.B., Feddema, J., & Jackson, T., 2011: An examination of urban heat island characteristics in a global climate model. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 1848–1865.Google Scholar
Omoto, Y., Hamotani, K., & Um, H–H., 1994: Recent changes in trends of humidity of Japanese Cities, Journal of Japan Society for Hydrology and Water Resources, 7, 106–113.Google Scholar
Parsons, K.C., 2003: Human Thermal Environments: The Effects of Hot, Moderate and Cold Environments on Human Health, Comfort and Performance, 2nd Edition. Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Pawlak, W., Fortuniak, K., & Siedlecki, M., 2011: Carbon dioxide flux in the centre of Łódź, Poland—analysis of a 2-year eddy covariance measurement data set. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 232–243.Google Scholar
Peng, S., Piao, S., Ciais, P., et al., 2012: Surface urban heat island across 419 global big cities. Environmental Science and Technology, 46, 696–703.Google Scholar
Pérez-Lombard, L., Ortiz, J., & Pout, C., 2008: A review on buildings energy consumption information. Energy and Buildings, 40, 394–398.Google Scholar
Perryman, N., & Dixon, P.G., 2013: A radar analysis of urban snowfall modification in Minneapolis–St Paul. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 52, 1632–1644.Google Scholar
Peters, E.B. & McFadden, J.P., 2012: Continuous measurements of net CO2 exchange by vegetation and soils in a suburban landscape. Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, G03005.Google Scholar
Peterson, J.T., Flowers, E.C., & Rudisill, J.H., 1978: Urban-rural solar radiation and atmospheric turbidity measurements in the Los Angeles Basin. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 1595–1609.Google Scholar
Phillips, N.G., Ackley, R., Crosson, E.R., et al., 2013: Mapping urban pipeline leaks: Methane leaks across Boston. Environmental Pollution, 173, 1–4.Google Scholar
Pigeon, G., Legain, D., Durand, P., & Masson, V., 2007: Anthropogenic heat release in an old European agglomeration (Toulouse, France). International Journal of Climatology, 27, 1967–1981.Google Scholar
Pigeon, G., Lemonsu, A., Grimmond, C.S.B., Durand, P., Thouron, O., & Masson, V., 2007: Divergence of turbulent fluxes in the surface layer: case of a coastal city. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 124, 269–290.Google Scholar
Piringer, M., & Baumann, K., 1999: Modifications of a valley wind system by an urban area—Experimental results. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 71, 117–125.Google Scholar
Plate, E. J., 1999: Methods of investigating urban wind fields—Physical models. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 3981–3989.Google Scholar
Popiel, C.O., Wojtkowiak, J., & Biernacka, B., 2001: Measurements of temperature distribution in ground. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 25, 301–309.Google Scholar
Quéré, C.L. et al., 2013: The global carbon budget 1959–2011. Earth System Science Data, 5, 165–185.Google Scholar
Raman, A., Arellano, A.F., & Brost, J.J., 2014: Revisiting haboobs in the southwestern United States: An observational case study of the 5 July 2011 Phoenix dust storm. Atmospheric Environment, 89, 179–188.Google Scholar
Ramamurthy, P., & Pardyjak, E.R., 2011: Toward understanding the behavior of carbon dioxide and surface energy fluxes in the urbanized semi-arid Salt Lake Valley, Utah, USA. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 73–84.Google Scholar
Ramamurthy, P., Pardyjak, E.R., & Klewicki, J.C., 2007: Observations of the effects of atmospheric stability on turbulence statistics deep within an urban street canyon. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 2074–2085.Google Scholar
Rees, W., 1997: Urban ecosystems: the human dimension. Urban Ecosystems, 1, 63–75.Google Scholar
Rees, W., & Wackernagel, M., 1996: Urban ecological footprints: Why cities cannot be sustainable – and why they are a key to sustainability. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 16, 223–248.Google Scholar
Renou, E., 1855: Instructions météorologiques. Société Météorologique de France, 3, 73–160.Google Scholar
Renou, E., 1868: Differences de température entre la ville et la campagne. Société Météorologique de France, 16, 83–97.Google Scholar
Richards, K., 2005: Urban and rural dewfall, surface moisture, and associated canopy-level air temperature and humidity measurements for Vancouver, Canada, Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 114, 143–163.Google Scholar
Roberts, S.M., Oke, T.R., Grimmond, C.S.B., & Voogt, J.A., 2006: Comparison of four methods to estimate urban heat storage, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 45, 1766–1781.Google Scholar
Robins, A., Cheng, H., Hayden, P., & Lawton, T., 2004: Flow Visualization Studies—I. DAPPLE–EnFlo 04 Note, 8 pp. www.dapple.org.uk/downloads.html.Google Scholar
Rogers, J.J.W., & Feiss, P.G., 1998: People and the Earth, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 364 pp.Google Scholar
Romanov, P., 1999: Urban influence on cloud cover estimated from satellite data. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4163–4172.Google Scholar
Romero, H., Ihl, M., Rivera, A., Zalazar, P., & Azocar, P., 1999: Rapid urban growth, land-use changes and air pollution in Santiago, Chile. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4039–4047.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, D., Lohmann, U., Raga, G.B., et al., 2008: Flood or drought: How do aerosols affect precipitation? Science, 321, 1309–1313.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., 1993a: Turbulence close to a rough urban surface. 1. Reynolds stress. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 65, 1–28.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., 1993b: Turbulence close to a rough urban surface. 2. Variances and gradients. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 66, 75–92.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., 1995: Profiles of turbulence statistics in and above an urban street canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 13, 1473–1486.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., 1999: On the influence of the urban roughness sublayer on turbulence and dispersion. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 4001–4008.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., 2001: Simulation of urban-scale dispersion using a Lagrangian stochastic dispersion model. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 99, 379–410.Google Scholar
Rotach, M.W., Vogt, R., Bernhofer, C., et al., 2005: BUBBLE – an urban boundary layer meteorology project. Theoretical & Applied Climatology, 81, 231–261.Google Scholar
Roth, M., 1993: Turbulent transfer relationships over an urban surface. II. Integral statistics. The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 119, 1105–1120.Google Scholar
Roth, M., 2000: Review of atmospheric turbulence over cities. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 126, 941–990.Google Scholar
Roth, M. 2007: Review of urban climate research in (sub)tropical regions. International Journal of Climatology 27, 1859–1873.Google Scholar
Roth, M., & Oke, T.R., 1993: Turbulent transfer relationships over an urban surface. I. Spectral characteristics. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 119, 1071–1104.Google Scholar
Roth, M., & Oke, T.R., 1995: Relative efficiencies of turbulent transfer of heat, mass, and momentum over a patchy urban surface. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 52, 1863–1874.Google Scholar
Roth, M., Jansson, C., & Velasco, E., 2017: Multi-year energy balance and carbon dioxide fluxes over a residential neighborhood in a tropical city. International Journal of Climatology, 37, 2679–2698.Google Scholar
Rouse, W.R., & Bello, R.L., 1979: Short-wave radiation balance in an urban aerosol layer. Atmosphere-Ocean, 17, 157–168.Google Scholar
Rouse, W.R., Noad, D., & McCutcheon, J., 1973: Radiation, temperature and atmospheric emissivities in a polluted urban atmosphere at Hamilton, Ontario. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 12, 798–807.Google Scholar
Rouse, W.R., Blanken, P.D., Bussières, N., et al., 2008: An investigation of the thermal and energy balance of Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 9, 1318–1333.Google Scholar
Rozoff, C.M., Cotton, W.R., & Adegoke, J.O., 2003: Simulation of St. Louis, Missouri, land use impacts on thunderstorms. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 42, 716–738.Google Scholar
Rubin, J. I., Kean, A.J., Harley, R.A., Millet, D.B., & Goldstein, A.H., 2006: Temperature dependence of volatile organic compound evaporative emissions from motor vehicles. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, D03305.Google Scholar
Runnalls, K.E., & Oke, T.R., 2000: Dynamics and controls of the near-surface heat island of Vancouver, B.C. Physical Geography, 21, 283–304.Google Scholar
Sachweh, M., & Koepke, P., 1995: Radiation fog and urban climate. Geophysical Research Letters, 22, 1073–1076.Google Scholar
Sachweh, M., & Koepke, P., 1997: Fog dynamics in an urbanized area. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 58, 87–93.Google Scholar
Sailor, D.J., 2011: A review of methods for estimating anthropogenic heat and moisture emissions in the urban environment. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 189–199.Google Scholar
Sailor, D.J., & Lu, L., 2004: A top–down methodology for developing diurnal and seasonal anthropogenic heating profiles for urban areas. Atmospheric Environment, 38, 2004, 2737–274.Google Scholar
Sakakibara, Y., & Matsui, E., 2005: Relation between heat island intensity and city size indices/canopy characteristics in settlements of Nagano Basin, Japan. Geographical Review of Japan, 78, 812–824.Google Scholar
Santamouris, M., Synnefa, A., & Karlessi, T., 2011: Using advanced cool materials in the urban built environment to mitigate heat islands and improve thermal comfort conditions. Solar Energy, 85, 3085–3102.Google Scholar
Santella, N., Ho, D.T., Schlosser, P., et al., 2012: Atmospheric variability and emissions of halogenated trace gases near New York City. Atmospheric Environment, 47, 533–540.Google Scholar
Satterthwaite, D., 2008: Cities’ contribution to global warming: notes on the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions. Environment and Urbanization, 20, 539–549.Google Scholar
Savelyev, S.A., & Taylor, P.A., 2005: Internal boundary layers: I. Height formulae for neutral and diabatic flows. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 115, 1–25.Google Scholar
Savijärvi, H., & Liya, J., 2001: Local winds in a valley city. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 100, 310–319.Google Scholar
Scheffe, R.D., & Morris, R.E., 1993: A review of the development and application of the Urban Airshed Model. Atmospheric Environment Part B-Urban Atmosphere, 27, 23–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, H.P., 1994. Source areas for scalars and scalar fluxes. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 67, 293–318.Google Scholar
Schmid, H.P., & Bünzli, D., 1995: The influence of surface texture on the effective roughness length. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 121, 1–21.Google Scholar
Schmidt, W., 1927: Die Verteilung der Minimumtemperaturen in der Frostnacht des 12.5.1927 im Gemeindegebiet von Wien. Fortschritte der Landwirtschaft., 2, (H.21), 681–686.Google Scholar
Schneider, A., Friedl, M.A., & Potere, D., 2009: A new map of global urban extent from MODIS satellite data. Environmental Research Letters, 4, 044003.Google Scholar
Scholz, M., & Grabowiecki, P., 2007: Review of permeable pavement systems. Building and Environment, 42, 3830–3836.Google Scholar
Seinfeld, J.H., & Pandis, S.N., 2006: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2nd edn. John Wiley and Sons, 1232 pp.Google Scholar
Semonin, R.G., 1981a: Cloud characteristics. In: METROMEX: A Review and Summary, Changnon, S.A., (ed.), Meteorological Monographs, 18, 63–74.Google Scholar
Sham, S., 1987: Urbanization and the Atmospheric Environment in the Low Tropics. Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 606 pp.Google Scholar
Shanahan, P., 2009: Groundwater in the urban environment. In: The Water Environment of Cities, Baker, L.A. (ed.), Springer Science+Business Media, 29–48.Google Scholar
Sharples, S., 1984: Full-scale measurements of convective energy losses from exterior building surfaces. Building and Environment, 19, 31–39.Google Scholar
Shashua-Bar, L., & Hoffman, M.E., 2000: Vegetation as a climatic component in the design of an urban street. An empirical model for predicting the cooling effect of urban green areas with trees. Energy and Buildings, 31, 221–235.Google Scholar
Shashua-Bar, L., Pearlmutter, D., & Erell, E., 2009: The cooling efficiency of urban landscape strategies in a hot dry climate. Landscape and Urban Planning, 92, 179–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, D.M., & Auer, A.H. Jr., 1978: Thermodynamic properties and aerosol patterns in the plume downwind of St Louis. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 689–698.Google Scholar
Shepherd, J.M., 2013: Impacts of urbanization on precipitation and storms: Physical insights and vulnerabilities. In: Climate Vulnerability, Pielke, R. (ed.), Academic Press, 109–125.Google Scholar
Shepherd, J.M., & Mote, T.L., 2011: Can cities create their own snowfall? What observations are required to find out? Posted Sept 6, 2011 to Earthzine. Available online at: www.earthzine.org/2011/09/06/can-cities-create-their-own-snowfall-what-observations-are-required-to-find-out/Google Scholar
Shi, C., Roth, M., Zhang, H., & Li, Z., 2008: Impacts of urbanization on long-term fog variation in Anhui Province, China. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 8484–8492.Google Scholar
Shreffler, J.H., 1978: Detection of centripetal heat island circulations. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 15, 229–242.Google Scholar
Shuttleworth, W.J., 2012: Terrestrial Hydrometeorology. Wiley-Blackwell, 448 pp.Google Scholar
Shuzhen, Z., & Chao, C., 1985: An Introduction to Urban Climatology. Press of East China Normal University, 324 pp. [in Chinese]Google Scholar
Simmons, I.G., 1995: Earth, Air and Water: Resources and Environment in the Late 20th Century. Edward Arnold, London U.K.Google Scholar
Sini, J., Anquetin, S., & Mestayer, P., 1996: Pollutant dispersion and thermal effects in urban street canyons. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 2659–2677.Google Scholar
Small, C., 2004: Global population distribution and urban land use in geophysical parameter space. Earth Interactions, 8, 1–18.Google Scholar
Smith, D.M., & Allen, S.J., 1998: Measurement of sap flow in plant stems. Journal of Experimental Botany, 47, 1833–1844.Google Scholar
Sobrino, J.A., Oltra-Carrió, R., Jiménez-Muño, J.C., et al. 2012: Emissivity mapping over urban areas using a classification-based approach: Application to the Dual-use European Security IR Experiment (DESIREX). International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 18, 141–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, T., & Wang, Y., 2012: Carbon dioxide fluxes from an urban area in Beijing. Atmospheric Research, 106, 139–149.Google Scholar
Soulhac, L., Garbero, V., Salizzoni, P., Mejean, P., & Perkins, R.J., 2009: Flow and dispersion in street intersections. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 2981–2996.Google Scholar
Sportisse, B., 2009: Fundamentals in Air Pollution. Springer Science & Business Media, Dordrecth, 299 pp.Google Scholar
Spronken-Smith, R.A., 1994: Energetics and cooling in urban parks. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, 203 pp.Google Scholar
Spronken-Smith, R.A., 2002: Comparison of summer- and winter-time suburban energy fluxes in Christchurch, New Zealand. International Journal of Climatology, 22, 979–992.Google Scholar
Spronken-Smith, R.A., & Oke, T.R., 1998: The thermal regime of urban parks in two cities with different summer climates. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19, 2085–2104.Google Scholar
Spronken-Smith, R.A., Oke, T.R., & Lowry, W.P., 2000: Advection and the surface energy balance of an irrigated urban park. International Journal of Climatology, 20, 1033–1047.Google Scholar
Stallins, J.A., & Bentley, M.L., 2006: Urban lightning climatology and GIS: An analytical framework from the case study of Atlanta, Georgia. Applied Geography, 26, 242–259.Google Scholar
Stallins, J.A., & Rose, L. S., 2008: Urban lightning: Current research, methods and the geographical perspective. Geography Compass, 2 /3, 620–639.Google Scholar
Stallins, J.A., Carpenter, J., Bentley, M.L., Ashley, W.S., & Mulholland, J.A., 2013: Weekend-weekday aerosols and geographic variability in cloud-to-ground lightning for the urban region of Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Regional Environmental Change, 13, 137–151.Google Scholar
Stearns, C.R., & Lettau, H.H., 1963: Two wind-profile measurement experiments in airflow over the ice of Lake Mendota. University of Wisconsin, Department of Meteorology, Annual Report, Madison. Wis., 115–138.Google Scholar
Steeneveld, G.J., Wokke, M.J.J., Groot Zwaaftink, C.D., et al., 2010: Observations of the radiation divergence in the surface layer and its implication for its parameterization in numerical weather prediction models. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, D06107.Google Scholar
Steinhauser, F., Eckel, O., & Sauberer, F., 1959: Klima und Bioklima von Wien. Wetter und Leben, 7, 1–136.Google Scholar
Stewart, I.D., 2011: A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern heat island literature. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 200–217.Google Scholar
Stewart, I.D., & Oke, T.R., 2012: Local Climate Zones for urban temperature studies. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 93, 1879–1900.Google Scholar
Stewart, I.D., Oke, T.R., & Krayenhoff, E.S., 2014: Evaluation of the ‘local climate zone’ scheme using temperature observations and model simulations. International Journal of Climatology, 34, 1062–1080.Google Scholar
Stohl, A., Forster, C., Eckhardt, S., et al., 2003: A backward modeling study of intercontinental pollution transport using aircraft measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 4370, D12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, B., 2004. Paving over paradise: how land use regulations promote residential imperviousness. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69, 101–113.Google Scholar
Strikas, O.M., & Elsner, J.B., 2013: Enhanced cloud-to-ground lightning frequency in the vicinity of coal plants and highways in Northern Georgia, USA. Atmospheric Science Letters, 14, 243–248.Google Scholar
Stull, R.B., 2000: Meteorology for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd edn. Brooks Cole Thomson Learning, 528 pp.Google Scholar
Sugawara, H., Narita, T., & Mikami, T., 2001: Estimation of effective thermal property parameter on a heterogeneous urban surface. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, 79, 1169–1181.Google Scholar
Sukopp, H., 1998: Urban Ecology—Scientific and Practical Aspects. In: Urban Ecology, Breuste, J., Feldmann, H., Uhlmann, O., (eds.), Springer, Berlin. 3–16.Google Scholar
Summers, P.W., 1964: An urban ventilation model applied to Montréal. PhD Thesis, McGill University, Montréal.Google Scholar
Sundborg, A., 1950: Local climatological studies of the temperature conditions in an urban area. Tellus, 2, 222–232.Google Scholar
Synnefa, A., Santamouris, M., & Livada, I., 2006: A study of the thermal performance of reflective coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy, 80, 968–981.Google Scholar
Szymanowski, M., 2005: Interactions between thermal advection in frontal zones and the urban heat island of Wrocław, Poland. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 82, 207–224.Google Scholar
Taesler, R., 1980: Studies of the development and thermal structure of the urban boundary layer in Uppsala, Part I, Experimental program, and Part II, Data analysis and results, Report No. 61, Meteorological Institute, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Parts I and II consist of 57 and 177 pp., respectively.Google Scholar
Takahashi, M., 1959: Relation between the air temperature distribution and the density of houses in small cities of Japan. Geographical Review of Japan, 32, 305–313.Google Scholar
Takebabayasi, H., & Moriyama, M., 2009: Study of the urban heat island mitigation effect achieved by converting to grass-covered parking. Solar Energy, 83, 1211–1223.Google Scholar
Taniguchi, M., Uemura, T., & Jago-on, K., 2007: Combined effects of urbanization and global warming on subsurface temperature in four Asian cities. Vadose Zone Journal, 6, 591–596.Google Scholar
Tapper, N.J., 1990: Urban influence on boundary layer temperature and humidity: results from Christchurch, New Zealand. Atmospheric Environment, Part B, 24, 19–27.Google Scholar
Tardif, R., & Rasmussen, R.M., 2007: Event-based climatology and typology of fog in the New York City region. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 1141–1168.Google Scholar
Tejeda-Martínez, A., & Jáuregui, E., 2005: Surface energy-balance measurements in the Mexico City region: A review. Atmósfera, 18, 1–23.Google Scholar
Terjung, W.H., 1974: Urban climatology: with reference to the inter-relationship between external weather and the microclimate in houses and buildings. In: Progress in Biometeorology, Vol.1, Pt.1, Ch.4, Sect.5, Tromp, S.W. (ed.), Swets and Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 168–180.Google Scholar
Theurer, W., Plate, E.J., & Hoeschele, K., 1996: Semi-empirical models as a combination of wind tunnel and numerical dispersion modelling. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 3583–3597.Google Scholar
Thompson, W.T., Holt, T., & Pullen, J., 2007: Investigation of a sea breeze front in an urban environment. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 133, 579–594.Google Scholar
Thornes, J.E., & Shao, J., 1991: Spectral analysis and sensitivity tests for a numerical road surface temperature prediction model. Meteorological Magazine, 120, 117–124.Google Scholar
Trusilova, K. & Churkina, G., 2008: The response of the terrestrial biosphere to urbanization: land cover conversion, climate, and urban pollution. Biogeosciences, 5, 1505–1515.Google Scholar
Tseng, Y.-H., Meneveau, C., & Parlange, M.B., 2006: Modeling flow around bluff bodies and predicting urban dispersion using large eddy simulation. Environmental Science and Technology, 40, 2653–2662.Google Scholar
Tulet, P., Maalej, A., Crassier, V., & Rosset, R., 1999: An episode of photooxidant plume pollution over the Paris region. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 1651–1662.Google Scholar
Turco, R.P., 2002: Earth Under Siege, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, 552 pp.Google Scholar
Turner, D., 1970: Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. Office of Air Programs Publication No. AP-26 (NTIS PB 191 482). US Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar
Tyson, P.D., Garstang, M., & Emmitt, G.D., 1973: The structure of heat islands. Occas. Paper No.12, Dept. Geog. Environ. Studies, Univ. Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Um, H.-H., Ha, K.-J., & Lee, S.-S., 2007: Evaluation of the urban effect of long-term relative humidity and the separation of temperature and water vapor effects. International Journal of Climatology, 27, 1531–42.Google Scholar
UN, 2015: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, ST/ESA/SER.A/366.Google Scholar
Upmanis, H., Eliasson, I., & Lindqvist, S., 1998: The influence of green areas on nocturnal temperatures in a high latitude city (Göteborg, Sweden). International Journal of Climatology, 18, 681–700.Google Scholar
Urban Task Force, 1999: Toward an Urban Renaissance. Taylor & Francis, London.Google Scholar
Valentini, R., Baldocchi, D.D., & Tenhunen, J.D., 1999: Ecological controls on land-surface atmosphere interactions. In: Integrating Hydrology, Ecosystem Dynamics and Biogeochemistry in Complex Landscapes. Tenhunan, J., & Kabat, P., (eds.), Dahlem Workshop Report, John Wiley, 117–145.Google Scholar
Van den Heever, S., & Cotton, W.R., 2007: Urban aerosol impacts on downwind convective storms. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 46, 828–850.Google Scholar
Van Hoof, J., 2008: Forty years of Fanger’s model of thermal comfort: comfort for all? Indoor Air, 18, 182–201.Google Scholar
Van Vuuren, D.P., Edmonds, J., Kainuma, M., et al., 2011: The representative concentration pathways: an overview. Climatic Change, 109, 5–31.Google Scholar
Vardoulakis, S., Gonzalez-Flesca, N., & Fisher, B.E.A., 2002: Assessment of traffic-related air pollution in two street canyons in Paris: implications for exposure studies. Solar Energy 36, 1025–1039.Google Scholar
Vardoulakis, S., Fisher, B., Pericleous, K., & Gonzalez-Flesca, N., 2003: Modelling air quality in street canyons: a review. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 155–182.Google Scholar
Varma, R., & Varma, D.R., 2005: The Bhopal disaster of 1984. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 25, 37–45.Google Scholar
Vautard, R., Yiou, P., & van Oldenborgh, G., 2009: Decline of fog, mist and haze in Europe over the past 30 years. Nature Geoscience Letters, 2, 115–119.Google Scholar
Velasco, E., Pressley, S., Allwine, E., Estberg, H., & Lamb, B., 2005: Measurements of CO2 fluxes from the Mexico City urban landscape. Atmospheric Environment, 39, 7433–7446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velasco, E., Pressley, S., Grivicke, R., et al., 2009: Eddy covariance flux measurements of pollutant gases in urban Mexico City. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 9, 7325–7342.Google Scholar
Velasco, E., Pressley, S., Grivicke, R., Allwine, E., Molina, L.T., & Lamb, B., 2011: Energy balance in urban Mexico City: Observation and parameterization during the MILAGRO/MCMA-2006 field campaign. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 103, 501–517.Google Scholar
Velasco, E., Roth, M., Tan, S.H., Quak, M., Nabarro, S.D.A., & Norford, L., 2013: The role of vegetation in the CO2 flux from a tropical urban neighbourhood. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13, 10185–10202.Google Scholar
Vesala, T., Jarvi, L., Launiainen, S., et al., 2008: Surface-atmosphere interactions over complex urban terrain in Helsinki, Finland. Tellus, 60B, 188–199.Google Scholar
Vogt, R., & Parlow, E., 2011: Die städtische Wärmeinsel von Basel-tages-und jahreszeitliche Charakterisierung. Regio Basiliensis, 52, 7–15.Google Scholar
Vogt, R., Christen, A., Rotach, M.W., Roth, M., & Satyanarayana, A.N.V., 2006: Temporal dynamics of CO2 fluxes and profiles over a central European city. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 84, 117–126.Google Scholar
Voogt, J.A., 2002: Urban heat island. In: Causes and Consequences of Global Environmental Change, Douglas, I. (ed.), Vol. 3 in Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, Munn, R.E. (ed-in chief), John Wiley & Sons, 660–666.Google Scholar
Voogt, J.A., & Oke, T.R., 1997: Complete urban surface temperatures. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 36, 1117–1132.Google Scholar
Voogt, J.A., & Oke, T.R., 2003: Thermal remote sensing of urban climates. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86, 370–384.Google Scholar
Vukovich, F.M., & Dunn, J.W., 1978: A theoretical study of the St. Louis heat island: Some parameter variations. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 1585–1594.Google Scholar
Wallace, J.M., & Hobbs, P.V., 2006: Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, 2nd Edition. Elsevier, 504 pp.Google Scholar
Walter, H., & Lieth, H., 1967: Klimadiagram-Weltatlas. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, JenaGoogle Scholar
Wanner, H., & Filliger, P., 1989: Orographic influence on urban climate. Weather and Climate, 9, 22–28.Google Scholar
Weber, S., & Kordowski, K., 2010: Comparison of atmospheric turbulence characteristics and turbulent fluxes from two urban sites in Essen, Germany. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 102, 61–74.Google Scholar
Webster, N. Jr., 1799: A dissertation on the supposed change in the temperature of winter, Memoirs Connecticut Acad. Arts & Sci., 1, 1–68.Google Scholar
Weissert, L.F., Salmond, J.A., & Schwendenmann, L., 2014: A review of the current progress in quantifying the potential of urban forests to mitigate urban CO2 emissions. Urban Climate, 8, 100–125.Google Scholar
Welty, C., 2009: The urban water budget. In: The Water Environment of Cities, Baker, L.A. (ed.), Springer Science+Business Media, 17–28.Google Scholar
Wennberg, P.O., Mui, W., Wunch, D., et al. 2012: On the sources of methane to the Los Angeles atmosphere. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 9282–9289.Google Scholar
Westcott, N.E., 1995: Summertime cloud-to-ground lightning activity around major Midwestern urban areas. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34, 1633–1642.Google Scholar
Whitby, K.T., 1978: The physical characteristics of sulphur aerosols. Atmospheric Environment, 12, 135–159.Google Scholar
White, J.M., Eaton, F.D., & Auer, A.H. Jr., 1978: The net radiation budget of the St. Louis Metropolitan area. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 17, 593–599.Google Scholar
WHO, 2014: 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution. WHO International, www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/.Google Scholar
WHO, 2006: WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global update 2005. Summary of risk assessment. Publications of the World Health Organization. Geneva. 22pp.Google Scholar
WHO, 2009: Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Publications of the World Health Organization. Geneva. 62pp.Google Scholar
Wieringa, J., 1993: Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 63, 323–363.Google Scholar
Wieringa, J., 1986: Roughness-dependent geographical interpolation of surface wind speed averages. Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society, 112, 867–889.Google Scholar
Wilson, K.B., Baldocchi, D.D., Aubinet, M., et al., 2002: Energy partitioning between latent and sensible heat flux during the warm season at FLUXNET sites, Water Resources Research, 38, 1294, doi:10.1029/2001WR000989.Google Scholar
Wittich, K.-P., 1997: Some simple relationships between land-surface emissivity, greenness and plant cover fraction for use in satellite remote sensing. International Journal of Biometeorology, 41, 58–65.Google Scholar
Wittwer, W.C., 1860: Grundzüge der Klimatologie von Bayern. In: Landes-und Volkskunde d. Kgr. Bayern, Vol.1, Munich.Google Scholar
WMO, 2008: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation, Part II-Observing Systems, Chapter 11, WMO-No.8, 7th Edition, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, II-11-1 – II-11–25.Google Scholar
Woods-Ballard, B., Wilson, S., Udale-Clark, H., et al., 2015: The SUDS manual (Vol. 753). London: CIRIA.Google Scholar
Wunch, D., Wennberg, P.O., Toon, G.C., Keppel-Aleks, G., & Yavin, Y.G., 2009: Emissions of greenhouse gases from a North American megacity. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L15810.Google Scholar
Wurman, J., Alexander, C., Robinson, P., & Richardson, Y., 2007: Low-level winds in tornadoes and potential catastrophic tornado impacts in urban areas. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 88, 31–46.Google Scholar
Yakhot, A, Liu, H., & Nikitin, N., 2006: Turbulent flow around a wall-mounted cube: A direct numerical simulation. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 27, 994–1009.Google Scholar
Yamartino, R. J., & Wiegand, G., 1986: Development and evaluation of simple-models for the flow, turbulence and pollutant concentration fields within an urban street canyon. Atmospheric Environment, 20, 2137–2156.Google Scholar
Yoshikado, H., 1990: Vertical structure of the sea breeze penetrating through a large urban complex. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 29, 878–891.Google Scholar
Yoshikado, H., 1992: Numerical study of the daytime urban effect and its interaction with the sea breeze. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 31, 1146–1164.Google Scholar
Yoshino, M.M., 1975: Climate of a Small Place, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 549 pp.Google Scholar
Yoshino, M.M. & Yamashita, S., 1998: Encyclopedia of Urban Environment, Asakura Publishing Co., Tokyo, 435 pp. [In Japanese]Google Scholar
Yow, D.M., 2007: Urban heat islands: observations, impacts and adaptations. Geography Compass, 1, 1227–1251.Google Scholar
Zhang, J., & Smith, K.R., 2003: Indoor air pollution: a global health concern. British Medical Bulletin, 68, 209–225.Google Scholar
Zhu, K., Blum, P., Ferguson, G., Balke, K.-D., & Bayer, P., 2010: The geothermal potential of urban heat islands. Environmental Research Letters, 5, 044002.Google Scholar
Zrudlo, L.R. 1988: A climatic approach to town planning in the arctic. Energy and Buildings, 11, 41–63.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • References
  • T. R. Oke, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, G. Mills, University College Dublin, A. Christen, J. A. Voogt, University of Western Ontario
  • Book: Urban Climates
  • Online publication: 16 September 2017
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139016476.018
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • References
  • T. R. Oke, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, G. Mills, University College Dublin, A. Christen, J. A. Voogt, University of Western Ontario
  • Book: Urban Climates
  • Online publication: 16 September 2017
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139016476.018
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • References
  • T. R. Oke, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, G. Mills, University College Dublin, A. Christen, J. A. Voogt, University of Western Ontario
  • Book: Urban Climates
  • Online publication: 16 September 2017
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139016476.018
Available formats
×