Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T00:05:25.081Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 30 - Cerebral Cavernous Malformations and Developmental Venous Anomalies

from Section 3 - Hereditary and Genetic Conditions and Malformations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 June 2018

Louis Caplan
Affiliation:
Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, Boston
José Biller
Affiliation:
Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdulrauf, S., Kaynar, M., et al. (1999). A comparison of the clinical profile of cavernous malformations with and without associated venous malformations. Neurosurgery 44: 41–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abe, M., Asfora, W., et al. (1990). Cerebellar venous angioma associated with angiographically occult brain stem vascular malformation: Report of two cases. Surg Neurol 33: 400–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abe, M., Kjellberg, R., et al. (1989). Clinical presentations of vascular malformations of the brain stem: Comparison of angiographically positive and negative types. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 52: 167–75.Google Scholar
Aboian, M. S., Daniels, D. J., et al. (2009). The putative role of the venous system in the genesis of vascular malformations. Neurosurg Focus 27: e9.Google Scholar
Aiba, T., Tanaka, R., et al. (1995). Natural history of intracranial cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 83: 56–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akers, A., Al-Shahi Salman, R., et al. (2017). Synopsis of guidelines for the clinical management of cerebral cavernous malformations: Consensus recommendations based on systematic literature review by the Angioma Alliance Scientific Advisory Board Clinical Experts Panel. Neurosurgery 80: 665–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Shahi, R., Bhattacharya, J. J., et al. (2003). Prospective, population-based detection of intracranial vascular malformations in adults: The Scottish Intracranial Vascular Malformation Study (SIVMS). Stroke 34: 1163–9.Google Scholar
Al-Shahi Salman, R., Hall, J. M., et al. (2012). Untreated clinical course of cerebral cavernous malformations: A prospective, population-based cohort study. Lancet Neurol 11: 217–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Avman, N. and Dincer, C. (1980). Venous malformation of the aqueduct of Sylvius treated by interventriculostomy: 15 years follow-up. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 52: 219–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Awad, I. and Jabbour, P. (2006). Cerebral cavernous malformations and epilepsy. Neurosurg Focus 21: e7.Google Scholar
Awad, I. and Robinson, J. (1993). Cavernous malformation and epilepsy. In Cavernous Malformations, eds. Awad, I. and Barrow, D.. Park Ridge: AANS, pp. 4963.Google Scholar
Awad, I., Robinson, J. J., et al. (1993). Mixed vascular malformations of the brain: Clinical and pathogenetic considerations. Neurosurgery 33: 179–88.Google Scholar
Awada, A., Watson, T., et al. (1997). Cavernous angioma presenting as pregnancy-related seizures. Epilepsia 38: 844–6.Google Scholar
Barker, F., Amin-Hanjani, S., et al. (2001). Temporal clustering of hemorrhages from untreated cavernous malformations of the central nervous system. Neurosurgery 49: 1525.Google ScholarPubMed
Barrow, D. and Krisht, A. (1993). Cavernous malformations and hemorrhage. In Cavernous Malformations, eds. Awad, I. and Barrow, D.. Park Ridge: AANS, pp. 6580.Google Scholar
Berry, R., Alpers, B., et al. (1966). The site, structure and frequency of intracranial aneurysms, angiomas and arteriovenous abnormalities. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 41 : 40–72.Google ScholarPubMed
Bien, S., Friedburg, H., et al. (1986). Intracerebral cavernous angiomas in magnetic resonance imaging. Acta Radiol Suppl (Stockh) 369: 7981.Google Scholar
Biller, J., Toffol, G., et al. (1985). Cerebellar venous angiomas. Arch Neurol 42: 367–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, R. W., Wiebers, D. O, et al. (1996). Incidence and prevalence of intracranial vascular malformations in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1965–1992. Neurology 46: 949–52.Google Scholar
Cantu, C., Murillo-Bonilla, L., et al. (2005). Predictive factors for intracerebral hemorrhage in patients with cavernous angiomas. Neurol Res 27: 314–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiaramonte, R., Bonfiglio, M., et al. (2013). Developmental venous anomaly responsible for hemifacial spasm. Neuroradiol J 26: 201–7.Google Scholar
Ciricillo, S., Dillon, W., et al. (1994). Progression of multiple cryptic vascular malformations associated with anomalous venous drainage. Case report. J Neurosurg 81: 477–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clatterbuck, R., Eberhart, C., et al. (2001). Ultrastructural and immunocytochemical evidence that an incompetent blood–brain barrier is related to the pathophysiology of cavernous malformations. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 71: 188–92.Google Scholar
Comey, C., Kondziolka, D., et al. (1997). Regional parenchymal enhancement with mixed cavernous/venous malformations of the brain. Case report. J Neurosurg 86: 155–8.Google Scholar
Cutsforth-Gregory, J. K., Lanzino, G., et al. (2015). Characterization of radiation-induced cavernous malformations and comparison with a nonradiation cavernous malformation cohort. J Neurosurg 122: 1214–22.Google Scholar
D’Angelo, V., Bonis, C. D., et al. (2006). Supratentorial cerebral cavernous malformations: Clinical, surgical, and genetic involvement. Neurosurg Focus 21: e9.Google Scholar
Dammann, P., Wrede, K. H., et al. (2013). The venous angioarchitecture of sporadic cerebral cavernous malformations: A susceptibility weighted imaging study at 7 T MRI. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 84: 194200.Google Scholar
Dashti, S., Hoffer, A., et al. (2006). Molecular genetics of familial cerebral cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Focus 21: e2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DelCurling, O., D. L. Kelly, et al. (1991). An analysis of the natural history of cavernous angiomas. J Neurosurg 75: 702–8.Google Scholar
Detwiler, P., Porter, R., et al. (1997). De novo formation of a central nervous system cavernous malformation: Implications for predicting risk of hemorrhage. Case report and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 87: 629–32.Google Scholar
Dubovsky, J., Zabramski, J., et al. (1995). A gene responsible for cavernous malformations of the brain maps to chromosome 7q. Hum Mol Genet 4: 453–8.Google Scholar
Duffau, H., Capelle, L., et al. (1997). Early radiologically proven rebleeding from intracranial cavernous angiomas: Report of 6 cases and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 139: 914–22.Google Scholar
Fierstien, S., Pribram, H., et al. (1979). Angiography and computed tomography in the evaluation of cerebral venous malformations. Neuroradiology 17: 137–48.Google Scholar
Fischer, A., Zalvide, J., et al. (2013). Cerebral cavernous malformations: From CCM genes to endothelial homeostasis. Trends in Molecular Medicine 19: 302–8.Google Scholar
Flemming, K. D. (2012). Predicting the clinical behaviour of cavernous malformations. Lancet Neurol 11: 202–3.Google Scholar
Flemming, K., Goodman, B., et al. (2003). Successful brainstem cavernous malformation resection after repeated hemorrhages during pregnancy. Surg Neurol 60: 545–7.Google Scholar
Flemming, K. D., Bovis, G. K., et al. (2011). Aggressive course of multiple de novo cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 115: 1175–8.Google Scholar
Flemming, K., Link, M., et al. (2012). The prospective hemorrhage risk of intracerebral cavernous malformations. Neurology 78: 632–6.Google Scholar
Flemming, K., Link, M., et al. (2013). Use of antithrombotic agents in patients with intracerebral cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 118: 4346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flemming, K. D., Brown, R. D., et al. (2015). Seasonal variation in hemorrhage and focal neurologic deficit due to intracerebral cavernous malformations. J Clin Neurosci 22: 969–71.Google Scholar
Fritschi, J., Reulen, H., et al. (1994). Cavernous malformations of the brain stem. A review of 139 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 130: 3546.Google Scholar
Gangemi, M., Maiuri, F., et al. (1990). Familial cerebral cavernous angiomas. Neurol Res 12: 131–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garner, T., Curling, O. J. D., et al. (1991). The natural history of intracranial venous angiomas. J Neurosurg 75: 715–22.Google Scholar
Gibson, C. C., Zhu, W., et al. (2015). Strategy for identifying repurposed drugs for the treatment of cerebral cavernous malformation. Circulation 131: 289–99.Google Scholar
Giombini, S. and Morello, G. (1978). Cavernous angiomas of the brain. Account of fourteen personal cases and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 40: 6182.Google Scholar
Goulao, A., Alvarez, H., et al. (1990). Venous anomalies and abnormalities of the posterior fossa. Neuroradiology 31: 476–82.Google Scholar
Griffiths, D., Newey, A., et al. (2013). Thrombosis of a developmental venous anomaly causing venous infarction and pontine hemorrhage. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 22: e6535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, B. A. and Du, R. (2013). Natural history of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: A meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 118: 437–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, B. A., Lin, N., et al. (2011). The natural history of intracranial cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Focus 30: e24.Google Scholar
Gümüs, A., Yildirim, S., et al. (2007). Case report: Seizures in a child caused by a large venous angioma. J Child Neurol 22: 787–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunel, M., Awad, I., et al. (1996). A founder mutation as a cause of cerebral cavernous malformation in Hispanic Americans. N Engl J Med 334: 946–51.Google Scholar
Handa, J., Suda, K., et al. (1984). Cerebral venous angioma associated with varix. Surg Neurol 21: 436–40.Google Scholar
Hayman, L., Evans, R., et al. (1982). Familial cavernous angiomas: Natural history and genetic study over a 5-year period. Am J Med Genet 11: 147–60.Google Scholar
Hirata, Y., Matsukado, Y., et al. (1986). Intracerebral venous angioma with arterial blood supply: A mixed angioma. Surg Neurol 25: 227–32.Google Scholar
Hoeldtke, N., Floyd, D., et al. (1998). Intracranial cavernous angioma initially presenting in pregnancy with new-onset seizures. Am J Obstet Gynecol 178: 612–13.Google Scholar
Hong, Y. J., Chung, T. S., et al. (2010). The angioarchitectural factors of the cerebral developmental venous anomaly; can they be the causes of concurrent sporadic cavernous malformation? Neuroradiology 52: 883–91.Google Scholar
Horne, M. A., Su, F. K., et al. (2016). Clinical course of untreated cerebral cavernous malformations: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Neurol 15: 166–73.Google Scholar
Iv, M., Fischbein, N. J., et al. (2015). Association of developmental venous anomalies with perfusion abnormalities on arterial spin labeling and bolus perfusion-weighted imaging. J Neuroimaging 25: 243–50.Google Scholar
Jellinger, K. (1986). Vascular malformations of the central nervous system: a morphological overview. Neurosurg Rev 9: 177216.Google Scholar
Jeon, J. S., Kim, J. E., et al. (2014). A risk factor analysis of prospective symptomatic haemorrhage in adult patients with cerebral cavernous malformation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 85: 1366–70.Google Scholar
Josephson, C. B., Leach, J. P., et al. (2011). Seizure risk from cavernous or arteriovenous malformations: Prospective population-based study. Neurology 76: 1548–54.Google Scholar
Jung, H. N., Kim, S. T., et al. (2014). Diffusion and perfusion MRI findings of the signal-intensity abnormalities of brain associated with developmental venous anomaly. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 35: 1539–42.Google Scholar
Kalani, M. Y. and Zabramski, J. M. (2013). Risk for symptomatic hemorrhage of cerebral cavernous malformations during pregnancy. J Neurosurg 118: 50–5.Google Scholar
Kalimo, H., Kase, M., et al. (1997). Vascular Diseases. Greenfield’s Neuropathology, eds. Graham, D. and Lantos, P.. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 345–7.Google Scholar
Kim, P., Castellani, R., et al. (1996). Cerebral venous malformation complicated by spontaneous thrombosis. Child Nerv Syst 12: 172–5.Google Scholar
Kim, D., Park, Y., et al. (1997). An analysis of the natural history of cavernous malformations. Surg Neurol 48: 918.Google Scholar
Kiroglu, Y., Oran, I., et al. (2011). Thrombosis of a drainage vein in developmental venous anomaly (DVA) leading to venous infarction: A case report and review of the literature. J Neuroimaging 21: 197201.Google Scholar
Koc, K., Anik, I., et al. (2007). Massive intracerebral haemorrage due to developmental venous anomaly. Br J Neurosurg 21: 403–5.Google Scholar
Komiyama, M., Yamanaka, K., et al. (1999). Venous angiomas with arteriovenous shunts: Report of three cases and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 44: 1328–35.Google Scholar
Konan, A., Raymond, J., et al. (1999). Cerebellar infarct caused by spontaneous thrombosis of a developmental venous anomaly of the posterior fossa. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 20: 256–8.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D., Dempsey, P., et al. (1991). The case for conservative management of venous angiomas. Can J Neurol Sci 18: 295–9.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D., Lunsford, L., et al. (1995). The natural history of cerebral cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 83: 820–4.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D., Monaco, E. A., 3rd, et al. (2013). Cavernous malformations and hemorrhage risk. Prog Neurol Surg 27: 141–6.Google Scholar
Kupersmith, M., Kalish, H., et al. (2001). Natural history of brainstem cavernous malformations. Neurosurgery 48: 4754.Google Scholar
Labauge, P., Brunereau, L., et al. (2000). The natural history of familial cerebral cavernomas: A retrospective MRI study of 40 patients. Neuroradiology 42: 327–32.Google Scholar
Lai, P., Chen, P., et al. (1999). Venous infarction from a venous angioma occurring after thrombosis of a drainage vein. AJR Am J Roentgenol 172: 1698–9.Google Scholar
Larson, J., Ball, W., et al. (1998). Formation of intracerebral cavernous malformations after radiation treatment for central nervous system neoplasia in children. J Neurosurg 88: 51–6.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, P., Burrows, P., et al. (1986). Developmental venous anomalies (DVA): The so-called venous angioma. Neurosurg Rev 9: 233–42.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, P., Burrows, P., et al. (1994). Developmental venous anomalies (DVA): The so-called venous angioma. Neurosurg Rev 9: 232–42.Google Scholar
Lee, C., Pennington, M., et al. (1996). MR evaluation of developmental venous anomalies: Medullary venous anatomy of venous angiomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 17: 6170.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, M. and Kim, M. S. (2012). Image findings in brain developmental venous anomalies. J Cerebrovasc Endovasc Neurosurg 14: 3743.Google Scholar
Lehnhardt, F., Smekal, U. V., et al. (2005). Value of gradient-echo magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of familial cerebral cavernous malformation. Arch Neurol 62: 653–8.Google Scholar
Li, D., Hao, S. Y., et al. (2014). Hemorrhage risks and functional outcomes of untreated brainstem cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 121: 3241.Google Scholar
Lobato, R., Perez, C., et al. (1988). Clinical, radiological, and pathological spectrum of angiographically occult intracranial vascular malformations. Analysis of 21 cases and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 68: 518–31.Google Scholar
Lonjon, M., Roche, J., et al. (1993). Intracranial cavernoma. 30 cases. Presse Med 22: 990–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Lopez-Fraile, I. P., Sanjuan, M. T., et al. (1995). Cerebral cavernous angiomas in pregnancy. Two cases and a review of literature. Neurologia 10: 242–5.Google Scholar
Maeder, P., Gudinchet, F., et al. (1998). Development of a cavernous malformation of the brain. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 19: 1141–3.Google Scholar
Malik, G., Morgan, J., et al. (1988). Venous angiomas: An underestimated cause of intracranial hemorrhage. Surg Neurol 30: 350–8.Google Scholar
Maraire, J. and Awad, I. (1995). Intracranial cavernous malformations: Lesion behavior and management strategies. Neurosurgery 37: 591605.Google Scholar
Mathiesen, T., Edner, G., et al. (2003). Deep and brainstem cavernomas: A consecutive 8-year series. J Neurosurg 99: 31–7.Google Scholar
McCormick, W. (1966). The pathology of vascular malformations. J Neurosurg 24: 807–16.Google Scholar
McCormick, W. (1984). Pathology of vascular malformations of the brain. In Intracranial Arteriovenous malformations, eds. Wilson, C. and Stein, B.. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, pp. 4463.Google Scholar
McCormick, W., Hardman, J., et al. (1968). Vascular malformations (angiomas) of the brain with special reference to those occuring in the posterior fossa. J Neurosurg 28: 241–51.Google Scholar
McDonald, D. A., Shi, C., et al. (2012). Fasudil decreases lesion burden in a murine model of cerebral cavernous malformation disease. Stroke 43: 571–4.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, M., Kondziolka, D., et al. (1998). The prospective natural history of cerebral venous malformations. Neurosurgery 43: 195201.Google Scholar
Meng, G., Bai, C., et al. (2014). The association between cerebral developmental venous anomaly and concomitant cavernous malformation: An observational study using magnetic resonance imaging. BMC Neurol 14: 50.Google Scholar
Merten, C., Knitelius, H., et al. (1998). Intracerebral haemorrhage from a venous angioma following thrombosis of a draining vein. Neuroradiology 40: 1518.Google Scholar
Meyer, B., Stangl, A., et al. (1995). Association of venous and true arteriovenous malformation: A rare entity among mixed vascular malformations of the brain. J Neurosurg 83: 141–4.Google Scholar
Mikati, A. G., Tan, H., et al. (2014). Dynamic permeability and quantitative susceptibility: Related imaging biomarkers in cerebral cavernous malformations. Stroke 45: 598601.Google Scholar
Mindea, S., Yang, B., et al. (2006). Cerebral cavernous malformations: Clinical insights from genetic studies. Neurosurg Focus 21: e1.Google Scholar
Moriarity, J., Clatterbuck, R., et al. (1999). The natural history of cavernous malformations. Neurosurg Clin N Am 10: 411–17.Google Scholar
Moritake, K., Handa, H., et al. (1980). Venous angiomas of the brain. Surg Neurol 14: 95105.Google Scholar
Mullan, S., Mojtahedi, S., et al. (1996). Embryological basis of some aspects of cerebral vascular fistulas and malformations. J Neurosurg 85: 18.Google Scholar
Mullan, S., Oojtahedi, S., et al. (1996). Cerebral venous malformation–arteriovenous malformation transition forms. J Neurosurg 85: 913.Google Scholar
Naff, N., Wemmer, J., et al. (1998). A longitudinal study of patients with venous malformations. Neurology 50: 1709–14.Google Scholar
Nemoto, H., Nakazora, H., et al. (2006). Venous angioma with epilepsy. Intern Med 45: 345346.Google Scholar
Numaguchi, Y., Kitamura, K., et al. (1982). Intracranial venous angiomas. Surg Neurol 18: 193202.Google Scholar
Ogilvy, C., Moayeri, N., et al. (1993). Appearance of a cavernous hemangioma in the cerebral cortex after a biopsy of a deeper lesion. Neurosurgery 33: 307–9.Google Scholar
Otten, P., Pizzolato, G., et al. (1989). 131 cases of cavernous angioma (cavernomas) of the CNS, discovered by retrospective analysis of 24,535 autopsies. Neurochirurgie 35: 128131.Google Scholar
Pasqualin, A., Vivenza, C., et al. (1993). Spontaneous regression of intracranial arteriovenous malformation. Surg Neurol 39: 385–91.Google Scholar
Peltier, J., Toussaint, P., et al. (2004). Cerebral venous angioma of the pons complicated by nonhemorrhagic infarction. Case report. J Neurosurg 101: 690–3.Google Scholar
Perrini, P. and Lanzion, G. (2006). The association of venous developmental anomalies and cavernous malformations: Pathophysiological, diagnostic, and surgical considerations. Neurosurg Focus 21: e5.Google Scholar
Poorthuis, M., Samarasekera, N., et al. (2013). Comparative studies of the diagnosis and treatment of cerebral cavernous malformations in adults: Systematic review. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 155: 643–9.Google Scholar
Porter, P., Willinsky, R., et al. (1997). Cerebral cavernous malformations: Natural history and prognosis after clinical deterioration with or without hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 87: 190–7.Google Scholar
Rammos, S. K., Maina, R., et al. (2009). Developmental venous anomalies: Current concepts and implications for management. Neurosurgery 65: 20–9.Google Scholar
Rapacki, T., Brantley, M., et al. (1990). Heterogeneity of cerebral cavernous hemangiomas diagnosed by MR imaging. J Comput Assist Tomogr 14: 1825.Google Scholar
Requena, I., Arias, M., et al. (1991). Cavernomas of the central nervous system: Clinical and neuroimaging manifestations in 47 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54: 590–4.Google Scholar
Revencu, N. and Vikkula, M. (2006). Cerebral cavernous malformation: New molecular and clinical insights. J Med Genet 43: 716–21.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D., Drayer, B., et al. (1987). The MRI appearance of cavernous malformations (angiomas). J Neurosurg 67: 518–24.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D. and Spetzler, R. (1988). The association of venous and cavernous malformations. Report of four cases and discussion of the pathophysiological, diagnostic, and therapeutic implications. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 92: 100–5.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D., Hadley, M., et al. (1988). Cerebral cavernous malformations. Incidence and familial occurrence. N Engl J Med 319: 343–7.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D., Spetzler, R., et al. (1990). Cerebral venous malformations. J Neurosurg 73: 560–4.Google Scholar
Wityk, R. C., Hoffberger, J., et al. (2014). Risk of bleeding from antithrombotic agents in patients with cerebral cavernous malformations. American Academy of Neurology Poster Presentation. Phildelphia, PA, Johns Hopkins.Google Scholar
Robinson, J., Awad, I., et al. (1991). Natural history of the cavernous angioma. J Neurosurg 75: 709–14.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. J., Awad, I., et al. (1993a). Factors predisposing to clinical disability in patients with cavernous malformations of the brain. Neurosurgery 32: 730–6.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. J., Awad, I., et al. (1993b). Pathological heterogeneity of angiographically occult vascular malformations of the brain. Neurosurgery 33: 547–55.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. J., Brown, A., et al. (1995). Occult malformation with anomalous venous drainage. J Neurol 82: 311–12.Google Scholar
Rosenow, F, Alonso-Vanegas, M. A., et al. (2013). Cavernoma-related epilepsy: Review and recommendations for mangement – Report of the Surgical Task Force of the ILAE Commission on therapeutic strategies. Epilepsia 54: 2025–35.Google Scholar
Rothfus, W., Albright, A., et al. (1984).Cerebellar venous angioma: Benign entity? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 5: 61–6.Google Scholar
Sage, M., Brophy, B., et al. (1993). Cavernous haemangiomas (angiomas) of the brain: Clinically significant lesions. Australas Radiol 37: 147–55.Google Scholar
Saito, Y. and Kobayashi, N. (1981). Cerebral venous angiomas: Clinical evaluation and possible etiology. Radiology 139: 8794.Google Scholar
Salman, R. A.-S., Berg, M., et al. (2008). Hemorrhage from cavernous malformations of the brain: Definition and reporting standards. Angioma Alliance Scientific Advisory Board. Stroke 39: 3129–30.Google Scholar
Sarwar, M. and McCormick, W. (1978). Intracerebral venous angioma. Case report and review. Arch Neurol 35: 323–5.Google Scholar
Schneble, H., Soumare, A., et al. (2012). Antithrombotic therapy and bleeding risk in a prospective cohort of patients with cerebral cavernous malformation. Stroke 43: 3196–9.Google Scholar
Senegor, M., Dohrmann, G., et al. (1983). Venous angiomas of the posterior fossa should be considered as anomalous venous drainage. Surg Neurol 19: 2632.Google Scholar
Servo, A., Porras, M., et al. (1984). Diagnosis of cavernous haemangiomas by computed tomography and angiography. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 71: 273–82.Google Scholar
Shenkar, R., Shi, C., et al. (2015). Exceptional aggressiveness of cerebral cavernous malformation disease associated with PDCD10 mutations. Genet Med 17: 188–96.Google Scholar
Simard, J., Garcia-Bengochea, F., et al. (1986). Cavernous angioma: A review of 126 collected and 12 new clinical cases. Neurosurgery 18: 162–72.Google Scholar
Steinberg, G. and Marks, M. (1993). Lesions mimicking cavernous malformations. In Cavernous Malformations, eds. Awad, I. and Barrow, D.. Park Ridge: AANS, pp. 151–62.Google Scholar
Stockton, R. A., Shenkar, R., et al. (2010). Cerebral cavernous malformations proteins inhibit Rho kinase to stabilize vascular integrity. J Exp Med 207: 881–96.Google Scholar
Sze, G., Krol, G., et al. (1987). Hemorrhagic neoplasms: MR mimics of occult vascular malformations. AJR Am J Roentgenol 149: 1223–30.Google Scholar
Tekkok, I. and Ventureyra, E. (1996). De novo familial cavernous malformation presenting with hemorrhage 12.5 years after the initial hemorrhagic ictus: Natural history of an infantile form. Pediatric Neurosurgery 25: 151–5.Google Scholar
Topper, R., Jurgens, E., et al. (1999). Clinical significance of intracranial developmental venous anomalies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67: 234–8.Google Scholar
Truwit, C. (1992). Venous angioma of the brain: History, significance, and imaging findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 159: 1299–307.Google Scholar
Tung, H., Giannotta, S., et al. (1990). Recurrent intraparenchymal hemorrhages from angiographically occult vascular malformations. J Neurosurg 73: 174–80.Google Scholar
Ueda, S., Saito, A., et al. (1987). Cavernous angioma of the cauda equina producing subarachnoid hemorrhage. Case report. J Neurosurg 66: 134–6.Google Scholar
Valavanis, A., Wellauer, J., et al. (1983). The radiological diagnosis of cerebral venous angioma: Cerebral angiography and computed tomography. Neuroradiology 24: 193–9.Google Scholar
Vaquero, J., Leunda, G., et al. (1983). Cavernomas of the brain. Neurosurgery 12: 208–10.Google Scholar
Voigt, K. and Yasargil, M. (1976). Cerebral cavernous haemangiomas or cavernomas. Incidence, pathology, localization, diagnosis, clinical features and treatment. Review of the literature and report of an unusual case. Neurochirurgia (Stuttg) 19: 5968.Google Scholar
Walsh, M., Parmar, H., et al. (2008). Developmental venous anomaly with symptomatic thrombosis of the draining vein. J Neurosurg 109: 1119–22.Google Scholar
Wang, W., Liu, A., et al. (2003). Surgical management of brainstem cavernous malformations: Report of 137 cases. Surg Neurol 59: 444–54.Google Scholar
Wilms, G., Bleus, E., et al. (1994). Simultaneous occurrence of developmental venous anomalies and cavernous angiomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 15: 1247–54.Google Scholar
Wilson, C. (1992). Cryptic vascular malformations. Clin Neurosurg 38: 4984.Google Scholar
Witiw, C. D., Abou-Hamden, A., et al. (2012). Cerebral cavernous malformations and pregnancy: Hemorrhage risk and influence on obstetrical management. Neurosurgery 71: 626–30.Google Scholar
Wolf, A. and Brock, S. (1935). The pathology of cerebral angiomas. A study of nine cases. Bull Neurol Institut NY 4: 144–76.Google Scholar
Worrell, G., Sencakova, D., et al. (2002). Rapidly progressive hippocampal atrophy: Evidence for a seizure-induced mechanism. Neurology 58: 1553–6.Google Scholar
Yamasaki, T., Handa, H., et al. (1986). Intracranial and orbital cavernous angiomas. A review of 30 cases. J Neurosurg 64: 197208.Google Scholar
Yi, K. S., Cha, S. H., et al. (2013). Multimodal imaging follow-up of a thrombosed developmental venous anomaly: CT, CT angiography and digital subtraction angiography. Neurointervention 8: 120–4.Google Scholar
Zabramski, J., Wascher, T., et al. (1994). The natural history of familial cavernous malformations: Results of an ongoing study. J Neurosurg 80: 422–32.Google Scholar
Zauberman, H. and Feinsod, M. (1970). Orbital hemangioma growth during pregnancy. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 48: 929–33.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×