eleven - Hate crime against students: recent developments in research, policy and practice

Summary

Introduction

Analyses of hate crimes against students have been a significant feature of the academic hate crime literature in the United States since the early 1990s, with a number of studies examining racial, ethnic, religious, homophobic and gender-related incidents on campus. In contrast, there has to date been little attention to ‘campus climate’ in the United Kingdom or Europe, despite increasing attention to the safety of international students globally. However, there is good reason to consider students as a unique victim population within hate crime studies. Students on further and higher education campuses tend to undertake their studies between the ages of 16 and 23, meaning that they fall into the age group that experiences the highest number of hate crimes and highest levels of violence in hate attacks (Athwal et al, 2010). Their activities also reflect the characteristics that make young people more vulnerable generally, being frequent users of public space and public transport, where reported hate crimes are most likely to occur, and consumers of alcohol and drugs, which are predictive of violent victimisation (Fisher et al, 1998). They have more frequent and intimate contact with a range of identities and ideas as well as organisations that politicise these (Lyons, 2008), and may be exposed to much greater social diversity than previously experienced (Perry, 2010). They have less day-to-day contact with teaching staff or family, and infrequently report crimes despite high levels of repeat victimisation (Barberet et al, 2004).

This chapter will explore the impact of hate crime research on the development of US and UK policy in this area, and use recent survey findings to examine the gaps in understanding the exact nature of the hate crime suffered by student victim groups in the UK. It will argue that much more research needs to be undertaken within the UK campus context, which builds on the extensive 2010/11 hate crime survey conducted by the National Union of Students, before a fully formed picture of UK campus victimisation can be created and effective policy formulated.

Policy divergence

‘Campus climate’, and its effect on minority students, has been a concern for US institutions of higher education since the 1990s, when Ehrlich (1994) estimated that up to one million students perceived themselves to be victims of ethnically motivated hate crimes annually.