Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T03:08:11.970Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Paleoclimatic History

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2018

Roger G. Barry  and
Eileen A. Hall-McKim
Roger G. Barry
Affiliation:
University of Colorado Boulder
Eileen A. Hall-McKim
Affiliation:
University of Colorado Boulder
Get access

Summary

Paleoclimatic history from the Eocene to the Anthropocene is summarized. First, the variation of temperatures over geologic time is reviewed. Geological records from ocean sediment cores and ice cores are described. The main climate drivers associated with orbital variations of the Earth and the global carbon cycle are noted. Then the climatic conditions during the major geologic epochs from the Eocene to present are discussed. During the early Eocene (56-34 million years ago, MYA) there was a Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum attributed to high carbon dioxide concentrations. Cooling around 34 MYA due to reduced atmospheric carbon dioxide led to Antarctic glaciation with major buildup around 15 MYA. The Plio-Pleistocene starting around 5 MYA, saw 40-kyr glacial cycles that switched to 100-kyr at 0.8 MYA. Large ice sheets formed and retreated over North America, Fenno-Scandinavia and the British Isles and West Antarctica. The post-glacial Holocene started at 11.7 kyr. The time when human influence began to dominate- the Anthropocene – is still debated. Polar amplification of global warming since the late 20th century is discussed, as is the role of poleward transport of heat and moisture by planetary waves.
Type
Chapter
Information
Polar Environments and Global Change , pp. 21 - 66
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adéhmar, J. A. 1842. Révolutions de la mer. Paris: Carilian-Goeury et V. Dalmont.Google Scholar
Aitken, A. R. A., et al. 2016. “Repeated Large-Scale Retreat and Advance of Totten Glacier Indicated by Inland Bed Erosion.” Nature 533: 385–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alley, R. B. 2016. “A Heated Mirror of Future Climate.” Science 352: 351–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anagnostou, E., et al. 2016. “Changing Atmospheric CO2 Concentration Was the Primary Driver of Early Cenozoic Climate.” Nature. doi: 10.1038/nature17423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, J. T. 2000. “Icebergs and Iceberg Rafted Detritus (IRD) in the North Atlantic: Facts and Assumptions.” Oceanography 13: 100–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, J. T., and Barnett, D. M.. 1979. “Holocene (Neoglacial) Moraines and Proglacial Lake Chronology: Barnes Ice Cap, Canada.” Boreas 8: 342–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, J. T., Shilts, W. W., and Miller, G. J.. 1983. “Multiple Deglaciations of the Hudson Bay Lowlands, Canada, since Deposition of the Missinaibi (Last-Integlacial?) Formation.” Arctic and Alpine Research 19: 18–37.Google Scholar
Andrews, J. T., and Webber, P. J.. 1964. “Lichenometrical Study on the Northwestern Margins of the Barnes Ice Cap: A Geomorphological Technique.” Geographical Bulletin 22: 80–104.Google Scholar
Astakhov, V. 2004. “Pleistocene Ice Limits in the Russian Northern Lowlands.” In Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. Part 1. Europe, edited by Ehlers, J. and Gibbard, P. J., 309–19. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Bailey, I., Hole, G. M., Foster, G. L., Wilson, P. A., Storey, C. D., Trueman, C. N., and Raymo, M. E.. 2013. “An Alternative Suggestion for the Pliocene Onset of Major Northern Hemisphere Glaciation Based on the Geochemical Provenance of North Atlantic Ocean Ice-Rafted Debris.” Quaternary Science Reviews 75: 181–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balco, G., and Rovey, C. W. II. 2010. “Absolute Chronology for Major Pleistocene Advances of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.”Geological Society of America Bulletin 38: 795–8.Google Scholar
Balco, G., and Schaefer, J. M.; LARISSA Group. 2013. “Exposure-Age Record of Holocene Ice Sheet and Ice Shelf Change in the Northeast Antarctic Peninsula.” Quaternary Science Reviews 59: 101–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, B. S., et al. 2014. “The Influence of the MJO on the Intraseasonal Variability of Northern Hemisphere Spring Snow Depth.” Journal of Climate 28(18): 7250–62.Google Scholar
Barry, R. G., and Chorley, R. J.. 2010. Atmosphere, Weather and Climate, 9th ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bassis, J. N., Petersen, S. V., and MacCathles, L.. 2017. “Heinrich Events Triggered by Ocean Forcing and Modulated by Isostatic Adjustment.” Nature 542: 332–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, A. 2012. “A Brief History of the Astronomical Theories of Paleoclimate.” In Climate Change, edited by Berger, A. et al., 107–29. Vienna: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beschel, R. 1961. “Dating Rock Surfaces by Lichen Growth and Its Application to Glaciology and Physiography (Lichenometry).” In Geology of the Arctic, Vol. 2, edited by Rasch, G. A., 1044–62. Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Blunden, J., and Arndt, D. S., eds. 2016. “State of the Climate in 2015.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 97(8): S1–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, G. C., and Lotti, R.. 1995. “Iceberg Discharges into the North Atlantic on Millennial Time Scales during the Last Glaciation.” Science 267: 1006–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boulton, G. S., Peacock, J. D., and Sutherland, D. G.. 1991. “Quaternary.” In Geology of Scotland, 3rd ed., edited by Craig, G. V., 503–41. London: Geological Society.Google Scholar
Bowen, D. Q., et al. 2002. “New Data for the Last Glacial Maximum in Great Britain and Northern Ireland.” Quaternary Science Reviews 21: 89–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brigham-Grete, J., et al. 2013. “Pliocene Warmth, Polar Amplification, and Stepped Pleistocene Cooling Recorded in NE Arctic Russia.” Science 340(6139): 1421–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briner, J. P., et al. 2016. “Holocene Climate Change in Arctic Canada and Greenland.” Quaternary Science Reviews 147: 340–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broecker, W. S., and Van Donk, J.. 1970. “Insolation Changes, Ice Volumes, and the O18 Record in Deep-Sea Cores.” Reviews of Geophysics 8: 169–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, H., et al. 2016. “The Asian Monsoon over the Past 640,000 Years and Ice Age Terminations.” Nature 534: 640–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, C. D., Gibbard, P. L., and Rose, J.. 2004. “Pleistocene Glaciation Limits in England, Scotland and Wales.” In Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. Part 1. Europe, edited by Ehlers, J. and Gibbard, P. J., 47–82. Amsterdam: Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, P. U., et al. 2009. “The Last Glacial Maximum.” Science 325: 710–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, L. G., et al. 2012. “High-Resolution Reconstruction of Southwest Atlantic Sea-Ice and Its Role in the Carbon Cycle during Marine Isotope Stages 3 and 2.” Paleoceanography 27: PA3217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croll, J. 1864. “On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate during Geological Epochs.” Philosophical Magazine (London) 28: 121–37.Google Scholar
Crutzen, P. J., and Stoermer, E. F. 2000. “The Anthropocene.” Global Change Newsletter 41: 17–18.Google Scholar
Cuffey, K. M., et al. 2016. “Deglacial Temperature History of West Antarctica.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(14): 249–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curry, P. J., and Pudsey, C. J.. 2007. “New Quaternary Sedimentary Records from Near the Larsen C and Former Larsen B Ice Shelves: Evidence for Holocene Stability.” Antarctic Science 19: 355–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, A. S., et al. 2016. “Constraining the Late Pleistocene History of the Laurentide Ice Sheet by Dating the Missinaibi Formation, Hudson Bay Lowlands, Canada.” Quaternary Science Reviews 146: 288–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dansgaard, W., et al. 1971. “Climate Record Revealed by the Camp Century Ice Core.” In Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages: Symposium 1969, edited by Turekian, K. K., 37–56. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dansgaard, W., et al. 1982. “A New Greenland Deep Ice Core.” Science 218: 1273–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeConto, R. M., and Pollard, D.. 2003. “Rapid Cenozoic Glaciation of Antarctica Induced by Declining Atmospheric CO2.” Nature 421: 245–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ditlevsen, P. D., Andersen, K. K., and Svensson, A.. 2007. “The DO-Climate Events Are Probably Noise Induced: Statistical Investigation of the Claimed 1470 Years Cycle.” Climate of the Past 3: 129–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dud-Rodkin, A., et al. 2004. “Timing and Extent of Plio-Pleistocene Glaciations in North-Western Canada and East-Central Alaska.” Developments in Quaternary Science 2(Part B): 313–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dud-Rodkin, A., Barendregt, R. W., and White, J. M.. 2010. “An Extensive Late Cenozoic Terrestrial Record of Multiple Glaciations Preserved in the Tintina Trench of West-Central Yukon: Stratigraphy, Paleomagnetism, Paleosols, and Pollen.” Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 47: 1003–28.Google Scholar
Dutton, A., and Lambeck, K.. 2012. “Ice Volume and Sea Level during the Last Interglacial.” Science 337(6091): 216–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyke, A. S. 2004. “An Outline of North American Deglaciation with Emphasis on Central and Northern Canada.” In Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. Part 2: North America, edited by Ehlers, J. and Gibbard, P. J., 373–424. Amsterdam: Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyke, A. S., et al. 2002. “The Laurentide and Innuitian Ice Sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum.” Quaternary Science Reviews 21: 9–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, L. P. 2016. “What Is the Anthropocene?” Eos 97(2): 6–7.Google Scholar
Ehlers, J., and Gibbard, P. J., eds. 2004a. Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. Part 1: Europe. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Ehlers, J., and Gibbard, P. J., eds. 2004b. Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. Part 2: North America. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Emiliani, C. 1961. “Cenozoic Climatic Changes As Indicated by the Stratigraphy and Chronology of Deep-Sea Cores of Globigerina-Ooze Facies.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 95: 521–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
England, J., et al. 2006. “The Innuitian Ice Sheet: Configuration, Dynamics and Chronology.” Quaternary Science Reviews 25: 689–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EPICA Community Members. 2004. “Eight Glacial Cycles from an Antarctic Ice Core.” Nature 429: 623–8.Google Scholar
Epstein, S., et al. 1951. “Carbonate Water Isotopic Temperature Scale.” Geological Society of America Bulletin 62: 417–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flournoy, M. D., et al. 2016. “Exploring the Tropically Excited Arctic Warming Mechanism with Station Data: Links between Tropical Convection and Arctic Downward Infrared Radiation.” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 73: 1143–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flowers, B. P., and Kennett, J. P.. 1994. “The Middle Miocene Climatic Transition: East Antarctic Ice Sheet Development, Deep Ocean Circulation and Global Carbon Cycling.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaecology 108: 537–55.Google Scholar
Fogt, R. L., and Wovrosh, A. J.. 2016. “The Relative Influence of Tropical Sea Surface Temperatures and Radiative Forcing on the Amundsen Sea Low.” Journal of Climate 28(21): 8540–55.Google Scholar
Francis, J. A., and Vavrus, S. J.. 2012. “Evidence Linking Arctic Amplification to Extreme Weather in Mid-latitudes.” Geophysical Research Letters 39(6): L06801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Francis, J. E., et al. 2009. “From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Eocene/Oligocene in Antarctica.” In Developments in Earth & Environmental Sciences, 8th ed., edited by Florindo, F. and Siegert, M., 311–72. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Galeoti, S., et al. 2016. “Antarctic Ice Sheet Variability across the Eocene–Oligocene Boundary Climate Transition.” Science 352: 76–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbard, P. L., and Lewin, J.. 2016. “Partitioning the Quaternary.” Quaternary Science Reviews 151: 127–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goss, M., Feldstein, S. B., and Lee, S.-Y.. 2016. “Stationary Wave Interference and Its Relation to Tropical Convection and Arctic Warming.” Journal of Climate 29: 1369–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graversen, R. G., and Burtu, M.. 2016. “Arctic Amplification Enhanced by Latent Energy Transport of Atmospheric Planetary Waves.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 142: 2046–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregoire, L. J., Valdes, P. J., and Payne, A. J.. 2015. “The Relative Contribution of Orbital Forcing and Greenhouse Gases to the North American Deglaciation.” Geophysical Research Letters. doi: 10.1002/2015GL066005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., and Shackleton, N. J.. 1976. “Variations in the Earth’s Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages.” Science 194: 1121–32.Google ScholarPubMed
Heinrich, H. 1988. “Origin and Consequences of Cyclic Ice Rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean during the Past 130,000 Years.” Quaternary Research 29: 142–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemming, S. R. 2004. “Heinrich Events: Massive Late Pleistocene Detritus Layers of the North Atlantic and Their Global Climate Imprint.” Reviews of Geophysics 42: 1005H.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson-Sellers, A., and McGuffie, K.. 1984. A Climate Modelling Primer. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Henry, L. G., et al. 2016. “North Atlantic Ocean Circulation and Abrupt Climate Change during the Last Glaciation.” Science 353: 470–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hidy, A. J., Gosse, J. C., Froese, D. G., Bond, J. D., and Rood, D. H.. 2013. “A Latest Pliocene Age for the Earliest and Most Extensive Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Northwestern Canada.” Quaternary Science Reviews 61: 77–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodell, D. A. 2016. “The Smoking Gun of the Ice Ages.” Science 354: 1235–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holbourn, A., et al. 2005. “Impacts of Orbital Forcing and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Miocene Ice-Sheet Expansion.” Nature 438: 483–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, M., and Caballero, R.. 2011. “The early Eocene Equable Climate Problem Revisited.” Climate of the Past Discussion Papers 6: 241–304.Google Scholar
Huber, M., and Nof, D.. 2006. “The Ocean Circulation in the Southern Hemisphere and Its Climatic Impacts in the Eocene.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaecology 231: 9–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, A. L. C., et al. 2016. “The Last Eurasian Ice Sheets: A Chronological Database and Time-Slice Reconstruction, DATED-1.” Boreas 45: 1–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, T. J., Denton, G. H., and Grosswald, M. G.. 1977. “Was There a Late-Würm Arctic Ice Sheet?” Nature 266: 596–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingólfsson, O., et al. 1998. “Antarctic Glacial History since the Last Glacial Maximum: An Overview of the Record on Land.” Antarctic Science 10: 326–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ives, J. D. 2016. Baffin Island: Field Research and High Arctic Adventure 1961–1967. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary Press.Google Scholar
Jakobsson, M., et al. 2014. “The Dynamic Arctic.” Quaternary Science Reviews 92: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakobsson, M., et al. 2016. “Evidence for an Ice Shelf Covering the Central Arctic Ocean during the Penultimate Glaciation.” Nature Communications 7. doi: 10.1038/ncomms10365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jansen, E., and Sjøholm, J.. 1991. “Reconstruction of Glaciation over the Past 6 Myr from Ice-Borne Deposits in the Norwegian Sea.” Nature 349: 600–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, A. E., et al. 2017. “Ocean Forcing of Ice Sheet Retreat in Central West Greenland from LGM to the Early Holocene.” Earth and Planetary Sciences Letters 472: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, J. A., et al. 2016. “Assessing Recent Trends in High-Latitude Southern Hemisphere Surface Climate.” Nature Climate Change 6: 917–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, M. A., and Lowell, T. W.. 2009. “Fluctuations of Local Glaciers in Greenland during Latest Pleistocene and Holocene Time.” Quaternary Science Reviews 28: 2088–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleiven, H. F., et al. 2002. “Intensification of Northern Hemisphere Glaciations in the Circum Atlantic Region (3.5–2.4): Ice-Rafted Detritus Evidence.” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaecology 184: 213–23.Google Scholar
Koenig, S. J., DeConto, R. M., and Pollard, D.. 2011. “Late Pliocene to Pleistocene Sensitivity of the Greenland Ice Sheet in Response to External Forcing and Internal Feedbacks.” Climate Dynamics 37: 1247–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuijpers, A., Knutz, P., and Moros, M.. 2014. “Ice-Rafted Debris (IRD).” In Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Media. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-6.Google Scholar
Lambeck, K., Purcell, A., and Zhao, S.. 2017. “The North American Late Wisconsin Ice Sheet and Mantle Viscosity from Glacial Rebound Analyses.” Quaternary Science Reviews 158: 174–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecavalier, B. S., et al. 2017. “High Arctic Holocene Temperature Record from the Agassiz Ice Cap and Greenland Ice Sheet Evolution.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(23): 5952–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, J.-E., et al. 2017. “Hemispheric Sea Ice Distribution Sets the Glacial Tempo.” Journal of Geophysical Research 44: 1008–14.Google Scholar
Lewis, S. L., and Maslin, M. A.. 2015. “Defining the Anthropocene.” Nature 519: 171–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, X.-Ch., et al. 2016. “Rossby Waves Mediate Impacts of Tropical Oceans on West Antarctic Atmospheric Circulation in Austral Winter.” Journal of Climate 28(20): 8151–64.Google Scholar
Locke, W. W. III, Andrews, J. T., and Webber, P. W.. 1979. A Manual for Lichenometry. London: British Geomorphological Research Group.Google Scholar
Lubinsky, D. J., Forman, S. L., and Miller, G. H.. 1999. “Holocene Glacier and Climate Fluctuations on Franz Josef Land, Arctic Russia, 80°N.” Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 85–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lunt, D. J., Foster, G. K., Haywood, A. M., and Stone, E. J.. 2008. “Late Pliocene Greenland glaciation Controlled by a Decline in Atmospheric CO2 Levels.” Nature 454: 1102–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackensen, A. 2004. “Changing Southern Ocean Palaeocirculation and Effects on Global Climate.” Antarctic Science 16: 369–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mangerud, J., Jansen, E., and Landvik, J. Y.. 1996. “Late Cenozoic History of the Scandinavian and Barents Sea Ice Sheet.” Global and Planetary Change 12: 11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, J. H. 1970. “A Former Ice Sheet in the Arctic Ocean?” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaecology 8: 19–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milankovitch, M. 1930. “Mathematische Klimalehre und Astronomische Theorie der Klimaschwankungen.” In Handbuch der Klimatologie, Band I, Teil A, edited by Köppen, W. and Geiger, R.. Berlin: Gebrüder Borntraeger.Google Scholar
Miller, G. H. 1973. “Late Quaternary Glacial and Climatic History of Northern Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada.” Quaternary Research 3: 561–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. H., et al. 2010a. “Temperature and Precipitation History of the Arctic.” Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 1679–715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. H., et al. 2010b. “Arctic Amplification: Can the Past Constrain the Future?” Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 1779–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. H., et al. 2012. “Abrupt Onset of the Little Ice Age Triggered by Volcanism and Sustained by Sea-Ice/Ocean Feedbacks.” Geophysical Research Letters 39: L02708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moran, K., et al. 2005. “The Cenozoic Palaeoenvironment of the Arctic Ocean.” Nature 441: 601–5.Google Scholar
Naish, T. R., et al. 2001. “Orbitally Induced Oscillations in the East Antarctic Ice Sheet at the Oligocene/Miocene Boundary.” Nature 413: 719–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naish, T. R., et al. 2009. “Obliquity-Paced Pliocene West Antarctic Ice Sheet Oscillations.” Nature 458: 322–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicholas, J. P., and Bromwich, D. H.. 2014. “New Reconstruction of Antarctic Near-Surface Temperatures: Multidecadal Trends and Reliability of Global Reanalyses.” Journal of Climate 27: 8070–93.Google Scholar
O’Cofaigh, C., et al. 2014. “Reconstruction of Ice Sheet Changes in the Antarctic Peninsula since the Last Glacial Maximum.” Quaternary Science Reviews 100: 87–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otto-Bliesner, B. L., et al. 2006. “Simulating Arctic Climate Warmth and Icefield Retreat in the Last Interglaciation.” Science 311: 1751–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pälike, H., et al. 2006. “The Heartbeat of the Oligocene Climate System.” Science 314: 1894–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, H.-S., et al. 2016. “The Impact of Poleward Moisture and Sensible Heat Flux on Arctic Winter Sea Ice Variability.” Journal of Climate 28(13): 5030–40.Google Scholar
Patton, H., et al. 2017. “Deglaciation of the Eurasian Ice Sheet Complex.” Quaternary Science Reviews 169: 148–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, P. N. 2010. “Increased Atmospheric CO2 during the Middle Eocene.” Science 330: 763–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, S. V., and Schrag, D. P.. 2015. “Antarctic Ice Growth Before and After the Eocene–Oligocene Transition: New Estimates from Clumped Isotope Paleothermometry.” Paleoceanography. doi: 10.1002/2014PA002769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollard, D., and DeConto, R. M.. 2009. “Modelling West Antarctic Ice Sheet Growth and Collapse through the Past Five Million Years.” Nature 458: 329–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, E. L., et al. 2016. “Long-Term Record of Barents Sea Ice Sheet Advance to the Shelf Edge from a 140,000-Year Record.” Quaternary Science Reviews 150: 55–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymo, M. E. 1997. “The Timing of Major Climate Terminations.” Paleoceanography 12: 577–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymo, M. E., and Huybers, P.. 2008. “Unlocking the Mysteries of the Ice Ages.” Nature 451: 284–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raynaud, D., et al. 2000. “The Ice Core Record of Greenhouse Gases: A View in the Context of Future Changes.” Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 9–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renssen, H., Goosse, H., and Muscheler, R.. 2006. “Coupled Climate Model Simulation of Holocene Cooling Events: Oceanic Feedback Amplifies Solar Forcing.” Climate of the Past 2: 79–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richter-Menge, J., and Mathis, J., eds. 2016. “The Arctic.” In State of the Climate in 2015, edited by Blunden, J. and Arndt, D.S.. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 97(8): S131–53.Google Scholar
Ruddiman, W. F. 1977. “Late Quaternary Deposition of Ice-Rafted Sand in the Sub-Polar North Atlantic (40–60°N).” Geological Society of America Bulletin 88: 1813–27.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, M. 2002. “On the 1470-Year Pacing of Dansgaard-Oeschger Warm Events.” Paleoceanography 17: 4.1–4.9.Google Scholar
Serreze, M. C., and Barry, R. G.. 2011. “Processes and Impacts of Arctic Amplification: A Research Synthesis.” Global and Planetary Change 77: 85–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackleton, N. J. 1967. “Oxygen Isotope Analyses and Pleistocene Temperatures Re-Assessed.” Nature 215: 15–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackleton, N. J. 1977. “The Oxygen Isotope Stratigraphic Record of the Pleistocene.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London) B 280: 169–82.Google Scholar
Shackleton, N. J. 2000. “The 100,000-Year Ice-Age Cycle Identified and Found to Lag Temperature, Carbon Dioxide, and Orbital Eccentricity.” Science 289: 1897–902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinclair, G., et al. 2016. “Diachronous Retreat of the Greenland Ice Sheet during the Last Deglaciation.” Quaternary Science Reviews 1345: 243–58.Google Scholar
Smith, J. A., Bentley, M. J., Hodgson, D. A., and Cook, A. J.. 2007. “George VI Ice Shelf: Past History, Present Behaviour and Potential Mechanisms for Future Collapse.” Antarctic Science 19: 131–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, C. W. 2016. “Evolution of Global Temperature over the Past Two Million Years.” Nature 583: 226–8.Google Scholar
Solomina, O., et al. 2015. “Holocene Glacier Fluctuations.” Quaternary Science Reviews 111: 9–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steffen, W., et al. 2016. “Stratigraphic and Earth System Approaches to Defining the Anthropocene.” Earth Future. doi: 10.1002/2016EF000379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steig, E. J., et al. 2013. “Recent Climate and Ice-Sheet Changes in West Antarctica Compared with the Past 2,000 Years.” Nature Geoscience 6: 372–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroeven, A. P., et al. 2016. “Deglaciation of Fennoscandinavia.” Quaternary Science Reviews 147: 91–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svendsen, J. I., et al. 1999. “Maximum Extent of the Eurasian Ice Sheets in the Barents and Kara Sea Region during the Weichselian.” Boreas 28: 234–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svendsen, J. I., et al. 2004. “Late Quaternary Ice Sheet History of Northern Eurasia.” Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 1229–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svendsen, J. I., and Mangerud, J.. 1997. “Holocene Glacial and Climatic Variations on Spitsbergen, Svalbard.” Holocene 7: 45–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Syvitski, J. 2012. “An Epoch of Our Making.” Global Change 8(78): 12–15.Google Scholar
Teschner, C., et al. 2016. “Plio-Pleistocene Evolution of Water Mass Exchange and Erosional Input at the Atlantic–Arctic Gateway.” Paleoceanography 31. doi: 10.1002/2015PA002843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thiede, J. C., et al. 2011. “Millions of Years of Greenland Ice Sheet History Recorded in Ocean Sediments. Polarforschung 80(3): 141–59.Google Scholar
Thomas, E. K., Szymanksi, J. S., and Briner, J. P.. 2010. “The Evolution of Holocene Alpine Glaciation Inferred from Lacustrine Sediments on Northeastern Baffin Island, Arctic Canada.” Journal of Quaternary Science 25: 146–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, J., et al. 2014. “Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment: An Update.” Polar Record 50: 237–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, J., and Marshall, G. J.. 2011. Climate Change in the Polar Regions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tzedakis, P. C., et al. 2017. “A Simple Rule to Determine Which Insolation Cycles Lead to Interglacials.” Nature 542: 427–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ulman, D. J., et al. 2016. “Final Laurentide Ice-Sheet Deglaciation and Holocene Climate-Sea Level Change.” Quaternary Science Reviews 152: 49–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Loon, H., and Rogers, J. C.. 1978. “Seesaw in Winter Temperatures between Greenland and Northern Europe. 1. General Description.” Monthly Weather Review 108: 296–310.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voosen, P. 2016. “Anthropocene Pinned to Postwar Period.” Science 353: 852–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WAIS Divide Project Members. 2015. “Precise Interpolar Phasing of Abrupt Climate Change during the Last Ice Age.” Nature 520: 661–5.Google Scholar
Waters, C., et al. 2016. “The Anthropocene Is Functionally and Stratigraphically Distinct from the Holocene.” Science 351(6269). doi: 10.1126/science.aad2622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welhouse, L. J., et al. 2016. “Composite Analysis of the Effects of ENSO Events on Antarctica.” Journal of Climate 29: 1797–808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wennrich, V., et al. 2016. “Impact Processes, Permafrost Dynamics, and Climate and Environmental Variability in the Terrestrial Arctic As Inferred from the Unique 3.6 Myr Record of Lake El’gygytgyn, Far East Russia: A Review.” Quaternary Science Reviews 147: 221–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, C., Greenwood, D. R., and Basinger, J.. 2015. “Was the Arctic Eocene “Rainforest” Monsoonal? Estimates of Seasonal Precipitation from Early Eocene Megafloras from Ellesmere Island, Nunavut.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 427: 18–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, K. R., and Overland, J. E.. 2006. “Climate Lessons from the First International Polar Year.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 87: 1685–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yin, Q. Z., and Berger, A.. 2010. “Insolation and CO2 Contribution to the Interglacial Climate Before and After the Mid-Brunhes Event.” Nature Geoscience 3: 243–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yin, Q. Z., and Berger, A.. 2012. “Individual Contribution of Insolation and CO2 to the Interglacial Climates of the Past 800,000 Years.” Climate Dynamics 38: 709–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×