Introduction

Summary

THE EARLY MIDDLE Ages are of special importance for European history, as this period marks the genesis of many peoples, of state formation, and of the affirmation of feudal relations. This work spans almost two centuries, from the end of the seventh until the late ninth century. During this time a series of political, military, economic, social, and religious transformations took place. The lower chronological limit is marked by the migration of the Bulgars south of the Danube (680/ 681), and the upper limit coincides with the movement of the Hungarians from the Eastern European steppes to the Carpathian Basin (895/ 896). This span includes significant events in the history of Central and Southeastern Europe. The Avar Kaganate controlled not only the Pannonian Steppe but also some regions east of the Tisza up to the Western Carpathians, which has been proven by the Avar graves and cemeteries identified in these areas. The Bulgarians’ settlement south of the Danube and the creation of a new political power changed political realities in the region and directly contributed to the distancing of relations between Byzantium and the North-Danube regions. The situation in the ninth century directly affected the so-called political silence in the Carpathian-Danubian regions (Map 1). Political reshuffling in the North-Danube areas began with the liquidation of Avar power and was followed by the division of spheres of influence between the Franks, the Moravians, and the Bulgarians. The appearance of the Hungarians at the mouth of the Danube and their conflicts with the powers and populations in the region led to the establishment of their control over the Pannonian Steppe and some other regions east of the Tisza in the late ninth century and beginning of the tenth century.

Geographical Boundaries. The appearance and evolution of human beings was and is closely linked to natural factors, but human interactions with the natural environment have still only been modestly investigated. Therefore, during historical research, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the geographical environment (relief, hydrography, climate, vegetation, etc.) and their connections with the anthropic factor.

The research is geographically bounded by natural landmarks, such as the Tisza, Danube, and Dniester Rivers to the west, east and south, to the southeast by the Black Sea coast, and to the north by the northern Bukovina region (Map 1).