Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cc8bf7c57-llmch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-12T00:37:56.209Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 31 - United Kingdom

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 May 2023

By
Graham Tucker ,
Wyn Jones ,
Susan Davies  and
Joan Edwards
Edited by
Graham Tucker
Graham Tucker
Affiliation:
Nature Conservation Consulting
Get access

Summary

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in the United Kingdom, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including post-Brexit), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. concerning persecution of birds of prey, strictly protected species, and species reintroductions); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and biodiversity offsetting, marine spatial planning, peatland and coastal habitat restoration, forest expansion, rewilding, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified, including potential divergence from EU nature legislation. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

Keywords

United KingdomUKbiodiversitynature conservationenvironmental policyenvironmental legislationEuropeBirds DirectiveHabitats Directiveprotected areas
Type
Chapter
Information
Nature Conservation in Europe
Approaches and Lessons
 , pp. 634 - 677
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aebischer, N. J. (2019) Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Census. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 65 (4), 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALGE (2013) Implications of the Comprehensive Spending Review on biodiversity work within local government. Main Findings. Financial Year 2011 to 2012. London, Association of Local Government Ecologists.Google Scholar
Anonymous (1994) Biodiversity: the UK action plan. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Anonymous (2015) The Great Britain Invasive Non-native Species Strategy. York, UK: The Great Britain Non-native Species Secretariat.Google Scholar
Ashmole, M. & Ashmole, P. (2009) The Carrifran Wildwood Project. Ecological Restoration from the Grassroots. Jedburgh, UK: Borders Forest Trust.Google Scholar
Ausden, M., Bradbury, R., Brown, A., Eaton, M., Lock, L. & Pearce-Higgins, J. (2015a) Climate change and Britain’s birdlife: what might we expect? British Wildlife, 26, 161–174.Google Scholar
Ausden, M., Dixon, M., Fancy, R. et al. (2015b) Wallasea: a wetland designed for the future. British Wildlife, 26, 382–389.Google Scholar
Avery, M. (2015) Inglorious. Conflict in the Uplands. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. J., Cunningham, C. A., Griffin, D. C. et al. (2022) Protected Areas and Nature Recovery. Achieving the Goal to Protect 30% of UK Land and Seas for Nature by 2030. London, UK: British Ecological Society.Google Scholar
Bain, C. G., Bonn, A., Stoneman, R. et al. (2011) IUCN UK Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands. Edinburgh: Peatland Programme.Google Scholar
Baker, D. J., Freeman, S. N., Grice, P. V. & Siriwardena, G. M. (2012). Landscape-scale responses of birds to agri-environment management: a test of the English Environmental Stewardship scheme. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49, 871–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J., Papadopoulou, L. & Sheate, W. (2018) United Kingdom. In Biodiversity Offsets – European Perspectives on No Net Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, eds. Wende, W., Tucker, G., Quétier, F., Rayment, M. & Darbi, M., pp. 211–239. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar
Baker, J., Sheate, W. R., Bennett, T. et al. (2014) Evaluation of the Biodiversity Offsetting Pilot Programme. London: Collingwood Environmental Planning & IEEP Report to DEFRA.Google Scholar
Baldock, D. & Hart, K. (2020) Risks and opportunities of a post-EU environmental regulatory regime for agriculture in England. London and Brussels: Institute for European Environmental Policy.Google Scholar
Balmer, D. E., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B. J., Swann, R. L., Downie, I. S. & Fuller, R. J. (2013) Bird Atlas 2007–11: The Breeding and Wintering Birds of Britain and Ireland. Thetford, UK: BTO Books.Google Scholar
BBOP (2012) Standard on Biodiversity Offsets. Washington, DC: Business and Biodiversity Offsets Programme (BBOP).Google Scholar
Beaugrand, G. (2004) The North Sea regime shift: evidence, causes, mechanisms and consequences. Progress in Oceanography, 60, 245–262.Google Scholar
Beaugrand, G., Edwards, M., Brander, K., Luczak, C. & Ibanez, F. (2008) Causes and projections of abrupt climate-driven ecosystem shifts in the North Atlantic. Ecology Letters, 11, 1157–1168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaugrand, G., Reid, P. C., Ibañez, F., Lindley, J. A. & Edwards, M. (2002) Reorganization of North Atlantic marine copepod biodiversity and climate. Science, 296, 1692–1694.Google Scholar
Beebee, T. (2015) The Great Crested Newt: an ongoing conservation dilemma. British Wildlife, 26, 230–236.Google Scholar
Benyon, R., Barham, P., Edwards, J. et al. (2020) Benyon Review into Highly Protected Marine Areas – Final Report. DEFRA.Google Scholar
Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (2007) Biodiversity – The UK Approach. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.Google Scholar
Boatman, N., Ramwell, C., Parry, H. et al. (2008) A review of environmental benefits supplied by agri-environment schemes. York/Cheltenham, UK: Central Science Laboratory/Countryside and Community Research Institute.Google Scholar
Boatman, N., Short, C., Elliott, J. et al. (2014) Agreement scale monitoring of Environmental Stewardship 2013–14 – assessing the impact of advice and support on the environmental outcomes of HLS agreements. Natural England contract LM0432.Google Scholar
Bradbury, G., Shackshaft, M., Scott-Hayward, L. et al. (2017) Risk Assessment of Seabird Bycatch in UK Waters. Slimbridge, UK: Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust. Report to DEFRA.Google Scholar
Bright, J. A., Morris, A. J., Field, R. H. et al. (2015) Higher-tier agri-environment scheme enhances breeding densities of some priority farmland birds in England. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 203, 69–79.Google Scholar
Brotherton, P., Anderson, H., Galbraith, C. et al. (2021) Nature Positive 2030 – Evidence Report. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
Brown, A., Hall, R. & Townshend, D. (eds.) (2001) State of Nature: The Upland Challenge. Peterborough, UK: English Nature.Google Scholar
Bruce-White, C. & Shardlow, M. (2011) A Review of the Impact of Artificial Light on Invertebrates. Peterborough, UK: Buglife-The Invertebrate Conservation Trust.Google Scholar
BSI (2013) BS 42020:2013. Biodiversity. Code of practice for planning and development. British Standards Institution.Google Scholar
Burns, F., Eaton, M. A., Barlow, K. E. et al. (2016) Agricultural management and climatic change are the major drivers of biodiversity change in the UK. PLOS ONE, 11, e0151595.Google Scholar
Burns, F., Eaton, M. A., Gregory, R. D. et al. (2013) State of Nature report. The State of Nature partnership.Google Scholar
Cameron, R., Burgess, K. & Payne, B. (2019) The rationale for Great Crested Newt district level licensing. In Practice: Bulletin of the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management, 103, 22–27.Google Scholar
Cao, Y., Elliott, J., McCracken, D., Rowe, K., Whitehead, J. & Wilson, L. (2009) Estimating the Scale of Future Environmental Land Management Requirements for the UK. ADAS & SAC Report for the Land Use Policy Group.Google Scholar
Capuzzo, E., Lynam, C. P., Barry, J. et al. (2018). A decline in primary production in the North Sea over 25 years, associated with reductions in zooplankton abundance and fish stock recruitment. Global Change Biology, 24, e352–e364.Google Scholar
Carey, P. D., Griffiths, G. H., Vogiatzakis, I. N. et al. (2016) Priority Habitats, Protected Sites and Climate Change: Three Investigations to Inform Policy and Management for Adaptation and Mitigation. London: DEFRA. DEFRA CR0439.Google Scholar
CEP (2015) Monitoring and Evaluation of Nature Improvement Areas: Final Report (2012–15). London: Collingwood Environmental Planning. Defra Research Project WC1061.Google Scholar
Chaniotis, P., Cioffi, B., Farmer, R., Cornthwaite, A., Flavell, B. & Carr, H. (2018) Developing an ecologically-coherent and well-managed Marine Protected Area network in the United Kingdom: 10 years of reflection from the Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Biodiversity, 19 (1–2), 140–147.Google Scholar
Christie, M., Hyde, T., Cooper, R. et al. (2011) Economic Valuation of the Benefits of Ecosystem Services Delivered by the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. DEFRA Project: NE0112. Aberystwyth, UK: Aberystwyth University Report to Defra.Google Scholar
CIEEM (2018) Guidelines for Ecological Impact Assessment in the UK and Ireland: Terrestrial, Freshwater, Coastal and Marine Version 1.1. Winchester, UK: Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management.Google Scholar
CJC Consulting, Tucker, G., Willis, K. & Doyle, P. (2004) Cost Effectiveness Study of Approaches for Delivery of PSA Target Relating to SSSIs. Oxford, UK: CJC Consulting.Google Scholar
Clark, R., Humphreys, J., Solandt, J.-L. & Weller, C. (2016) Dialectics of nature: the emergence of policy on the management of fisheries in English European Marine Sites. Marine Policy, 78, 11–17.Google Scholar
Clutten, R. & Tafur, I. (2012) Are imperative reasons imperilling the Habitats Directive? An assessment of Article 6(4) and the IROPI exception. In The Habitats Directive – A Developer’s Obstacle Course?, ed. Jones, G., pp. 167–182. Oxford, UK: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Cole-King, A. (1995) Marine protected areas in Britain: a conceptual problem? Ocean & Coastal Management, 27, 109–127.Google Scholar
Colhoun, K., Mawhinney, K., McLaughlin, M. et al. (2017) Agri-environment scheme enhances breeding populations of some priority farmland birds in Northern Ireland. Bird Study, 46, 545–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comerford, E., Molloy, D. & Morling, P. (2010) Financing Nature in an Age of Austerity. Sandy, UK: RSPB.Google Scholar
Condliffe, I. (2009) Policy change in the uplands. In Drivers of Environmental Change in Uplands, eds. Bonn, A., Allott, T., Hubacek, K. & Stewart, J., pp. 59–89. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cranbrook, Earl of. (2001) Fifty years of statutory nature conservation in Great Britain. In The Changing Wildlife of Great Britain and Ireland, ed. Hawksworth, D. L., pp. 1–22. London and New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Crick, H. Q. P., Crosher, I. E., Mainstone, C. P. et al. (2020) Nature Networks Evidence Handbook. York, UK: Natural England, Research Report NERR081.Google Scholar
Crofts, R., Dudley, N., Mahon, C. et al. (2014) Putting Nature on the Map: A Report and Recommendations on the Use of the IUCN System of Protected Area Categorisation in the UK. IUCN National Committee UK.Google Scholar
DAERA (2021a) Northern Ireland Environmental Statistics Report. May 2021. Belfast: Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs. And data tables at: www.daera-ni.gov.uk/publications/northern-ireland-environmental-statistics-report-2021Google Scholar
DAERA (2021b) Draft Environment Strategy for Northern Ireland. Belfast: The Department of Agriculture, Environment & Rural Affairs.Google Scholar
Daly, E., Fenn, T. & Miller, J. (2016) Evaluation of the Compliance and Quality of Biodiversity Duty Reports 2015. Final Report. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Dasgupta, P. (2021) The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review. London: HM Treasury.Google Scholar
Davey, C. M., Vickery, J. A., Boatman, N. D., Chamberlain, D. E. Parry, H. R. & Siriwardena, G. M. (2010) Assessing the impact of Entry Level Stewardship on lowland birds in England. Ibis, 152, 459–474.Google Scholar
Davies, S., Hughes, J. & Wilson, B. (2018) Creating a National Ecological Network in Scotland. British Wildlife, 29, 411–417.Google Scholar
De Santo, E. M. & Jones, P. J. S. (2007) Offshore marine conservation policies in the North East Atlantic: emerging tensions and opportunities. Marine Policy, 31, 336–347.Google Scholar
DEFRA & Natural England (2012) Biodiversity Offsetting Pilots. Technical Paper: The metric for the biodiversity offsetting pilot in England. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2002a) Working with the Grain of Nature: A Biodiversity Strategy for England. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).Google Scholar
DEFRA (2002b) Safeguarding Our Seas – A Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Development of Our Marine Environment. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2011a) Biodiversity 2020: a strategy for England’s wildlife and ecosystem services. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2011b) Biodiversity offsetting: guiding principles for biodiversity offsetting. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2013a) Payments for Ecosystem Services: A Best Practice Guide. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2013b) Payments for Ecosystem Services: A Best Practice Guide. Annex Case Studies. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2016a) Joint action plan to increase the English hen harrier population. Bristol, UK: DEFRA, Uplands Stakeholder Forum, hen harrier sub-group.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2016b) Defra’s Payments for Ecosystem Services Pilot Projects 2012–15: review of key findings. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2019a) Marine strategy part one: UK updated assessment and Good Environmental Status – consultation document. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2019b) Wild Bird Populations in the UK, 1970–2018. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2021) ENV09 – England biodiversity indicators. London: DEFRA. www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/env09-england-biodiversity-indicatorsGoogle Scholar
DEFRA (2022a) Landscapes review (National Parks and AONBs): government response. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2022b) Nature Recovery Green Paper: Protected Sites and Species. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
DEFRA (2022c) Environmental targets consultation summary of responses and government response. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J., Bonter, D. et al. (2012) The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10, 291–297.Google Scholar
Dicks, L. V., Ashpole, J. E., Dänhardt, J. et al. (2013) Farmland Conservation Synopsis: Evidence for the Effects of Interventions in Northern Europe. Synopses of Conservation Evidence, Volume 3. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
DOENI (2002) Northern Ireland Biodiversity Strategy. Belfast: Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland.Google Scholar
DOENI (2015) Valuing Nature: A Biodiversity Strategy for Northern Ireland to 2020. Belfast: Department of the Environment Northern Ireland.Google Scholar
Drayson, K. & Thompson, S. (2013) Ecological mitigation measures in English Environmental Impact Assessment. Journal of Environmental Management, 119, 103–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudley, N. (ed.) (2008). Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. WITH Stolton, S., Shadie, P. & Dudley, N. (2013) IUCN WCPA Best Practice Guidance on Recognising Protected Areas and Assigning Management Categories and Governance Types. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 21. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.Google Scholar
Duke, G., Conway, M., Dickie, I. et al. (2013) EMTF Second Phase Research: Opportunities for UK Business that Protect and/or Value Nature. Final Report. London: ICF GHK.Google Scholar
EAC (2021) Biodiversity in the UK: bloom or bust? House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee. First Report of Session 2021–22.Google Scholar
Earll, B. (2018) Marine Conservation: People, Ideas and Action. Exeter, UK: Pelagic publishing.Google Scholar
Ecosystem Markets Task Force (2013) Realising Nature’s Value. The Final Report of the Ecosystem Markets Task Force.Google Scholar
Edwards, J. (2018) Joan Edwards. In Marine Conservation: People, Ideas and Action, ed. Earll, B., pp. 84–94. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
Environment Agency (2019) Catchment Sensitive Farming Evaluation Report – Water Quality, Phases 1 to 4 (2006–2018). York, UK: Natural England.Google Scholar
European Commission (2019) The EU Environmental Implementation Review 2019 Country Report – United Kingdom. SWD(2019) 118 final.Google Scholar
Evans, A. D. & Green, R. E. (2007) An example of a two-tiered agri-environment scheme designed to deliver effectively the ecological requirements of both localised and widespread bird species in England. Journal of Ornithology, 148, Supplement 2, 279–286.Google Scholar
Evans, A. D., Armstrong-Brown, S. & Grice, P. V. (2002) The role of research and development in the evolution of a ‘smart’ agri-environment scheme. Aspects of Applied Biology, 67, 253–264.Google Scholar
Evans, D. (1992) A History of Nature Conservation in Britain. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Farjon, A. & Hill, L. (2019) Natural woodland generation as an alternative to tree-planting. British Wildlife, 30, 177–185.Google Scholar
Field, C., Dise, N., Payne, R. et al. (2014) The role of nitrogen deposition in widespread plant community change across semi-natural habitats. Ecosystems, 17, 864–877.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fielding, A., Haworth, P., Whitfield, P., McLeod, D. & Riley, H. (2011) A Conservation Framework for Hen Harriers in the United Kingdom. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Report 441.Google Scholar
Forestry Commission (2017) The UK Forestry Standard. The Governments’ Approach to Sustainable Forestry. Edinburgh: Forestry Commission.Google Scholar
Fox, R., Brereton, T. M., Asher, J. et al. (2015). The State of the UK’s Butterflies 2015. Wareham, UK: Butterfly Conservation and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.Google Scholar
Fox, R., Parsons, M. S., Chapman, J. W., Woiwod, I. P., Warren, M. S. & Brooks, D. R. (2013) The State of Britain’s Larger Moths 2013. Wareham, UK: Butterfly Conservation and Rothamsted Research.Google Scholar
Fuller, R. M. (1987) The changing extent and conservation interest of lowland grasslands in England and Wales: a review of grassland surveys 1930–1984. Biological Conservation, 40, 281–300.Google Scholar
Gaywood, M. J., Boon, P. J., Thompson, D. B. A., Strachan, I. M. (eds.) (2016) The Species Action Framework Handbook. Perth, UK: Scottish Natural Heritage.Google Scholar
GHK (2010) Costs of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan – Update. London: GHK Consulting Ltd.Google Scholar
GHK, Christie, M., ADAS, IEEP, Minter, R. & the Research Box (2011) Benefits of Sites of Special Scientific Interest. London: GHK Consulting Ltd.Google Scholar
Gibbons, D. W., Reid, J. B. & Chapman, R. A. (1993) The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland: 1988–1991. London: T & A D Poyser Ltd.Google Scholar
Gilbert-Norton, L., Wilson, R., Stevens, J. R. & Beard, K. H. (2010). A meta-analytic review of corridor effectiveness. Conservation Biology, 24, 660–668.Google Scholar
Glaves, D., Morecroft, M., Fitzgibbon, C., Owen, M., Phillips, S. & Leppitt, P. (2013) The effects of managed burning on upland peatland biodiversity, carbon and water. Peterborough, UK: Natural England Upland Evidence Review NEER004.Google Scholar
Glover, J. (2019) Landscapes Review. Final Report. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
GMMRG (2019) Grouse Moor Management Review Group. Report to the Scottish Government. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.Google Scholar
GOS (2018) Foresight Future of the Sea: a report from the Government Chief Scientific Adviser. London: Government Office for Science.Google Scholar
Gove, B., Williams, L. J., Beresford, A. E. et al. (2016) Reconciling biodiversity conservation and widespread development of renewable energy technologies in the UK. PLoS ONE, 11 (5), e0150956.Google Scholar
Green, R. H., Langston, R. H. W., McCluskie, A., Sutherland, R. & Wilson, J. D. (2016) Lack of sound science in assessing wind farm impacts on seabirds. Journal of Applied Ecology, 54, 1635–1641.Google Scholar
Gubbay, S. (1986) A Coastal Directory for Marine Nature Conservation. Ross-on-Wye, UK: Marine Conservation Society.Google Scholar
Gubbay, S. (2018) Sue Gubbay. In Marine Conservation: People, Ideas and Action, ed. Earll, B., pp. 72–83. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
Haddad, N. M., & Tewksbury, J. J. (2006) Impacts of corridors on populations and communities. In Connectivity Conservation, eds. Crooks, K. R. & Sanjayan, M. A., pp. 390–415. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hampson, D. (2022) The Landscapes Review – an opportunity for change? British Wildlife, 33 (4), 265–269.Google Scholar
Harding, M. J. & Spencer, K. S. (2017) What Has the Heritage Lottery Fund Done for Nature? London: Report by Hummingbird/OHES for the Heritage Lottery Fund.Google Scholar
Hargreaves, K. J., Milne, R. & Cannell, M. G. R. (2003) Carbon balance of afforested peatland in Scotland. Forestry, 76, 299–317.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, D. L. (ed.) (1974) The Changing Flora and Fauna of Britain. The Systematics Association Special Volume 6. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, D. L. (ed.) (2001) The Changing Wildlife of Great Britain and Ireland. London and New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Hayhow, D. B., Burns, F., Eaton, M. A. et al. (2016) State of Nature 2016. The State of Nature partnership.Google Scholar
Hayhow, D. B., Eaton, M. A., Stanbury, A. J. et al. (2019) The State of Nature 2019. The State of Nature partnership.Google Scholar
Helm, D. (2019) Green and Prosperous Land: A Blueprint for Rescuing the British Countryside. London: William Collins.Google Scholar
Hiscock, K. (2014) Marine Biodiversity Conservation: A Practical Approach. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hiscock, K. (2018) Keith Hiscock. In Marine Conservation: People, Ideas and Action, ed. Earll, B., pp. 61–71. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
Hiscock, K. (ed.) (1998) Marine Nature Conservation Review: Benthic Marine Ecosystems of Great Britain and the North-East Atlantic. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
HM Treasury (2021) The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review – Government response.Google Scholar
HMG (2011a) The Natural Choice: securing the value of nature. London: HM Government, the Stationery Office.Google Scholar
HMG (2011b) UK Marine Policy Statement. HM Government. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69322/pb3654-marine-policy-statement-110316.pdfGoogle Scholar
HMG (2012) Report of the Habitats and Wild Birds Directives Implementation Review. London: HM Government, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.Google Scholar
HMG (2018) A Green Future: Our 25 Year Plan to Improve the Environment. London: HM Government.Google Scholar
HMG (2021) Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener. London: HM Government.Google Scholar
Hodgson, J. A., Moilanen, A., Wintle, B. A. & Thomas, C. D. (2011) Habitat area, quality and connectivity: striking the balance for efficient conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48, 148–152.Google Scholar
Hodgson, J. A., Thomas, C. D., Wintle, B. A. & Moilanen, A. (2009) Climate change, connectivity and conservation decision making: back to basics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46, 964–969.Google Scholar
Holland, J. P., Morgan-Davies, C., Waterhouse, T., Thomson, S., Midgley, A. & Barnes, A. (2011) An Analysis of the Impact on the Natural Heritage of the Decline in Hill Farming in Scotland. Inverness, UK: Scottish Natural Heritage.Google Scholar
Hopkins, J. J., Allison, H. M., Walmsley, C. A., Gaywood, M. & Thurgate, G. (2007) Conserving biodiversity in a changing climate: guidance on building capacity to adapt. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
House of Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee (2021) Environmental Land Management and the agricultural transition. Second Report of Session 2021–22.Google Scholar
House of Lords (2018) The Countryside at a Crossroads: Is the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006 Still Fit for Purpose? London: The Select Committee on the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006, House of Lords.Google Scholar
IACCF (2010) Biodiversity and Climate Change in the UK, eds. Procter, D. A., Baxter, J. M., Crick, H. P. Q., Mortimer, D., Mulholland, F. & Walmsley, C. A.. Peterborough, UK: Inter-agency Climate Change Forum/JNCC.Google Scholar
ICES (2019) Working Group on Bycatch of Protected Species (WGBYC). Copenhagen: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. ICES Scientific Reports, 1 (51).Google Scholar
ICF (2019) Evaluation of EU LIFE Fund in the UK. Natural England Commissioned Report 266. ICF Consulting Services Limited report for Natural England.Google Scholar
Jepson, P. D., Deaville, R., Barber, J. L. et al. (2016) PCB pollution continues to impact populations of orcas and other dolphins in European waters. Scientific Reports, 6, 18573.Google Scholar
JNCC (1998) A statement on common standards monitoring. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
JNCC (1999) The Birds Directive. Selection guidelines for Special Protection Areas. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
JNCC (on behalf of the Common Standards Monitoring Inter-agency Working Group1) (2022) A Statement on Common Standards for Monitoring Protected Sites (2022). Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. https://hub.jncc.gov.uk/assets/0450edfd-a56b-4f65-aff6-3ef66187dc81Google Scholar
JNCC & DEFRA (on behalf of the Four Countries’ Biodiversity Group) (2012) UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
Johnston, A., Ausden, M., Dodd, A. M. et al. (2013) Observed and predicted effects of climate change on species abundance in protected areas. Nature Climate Change, 3, 1055–1061.Google Scholar
Jones, G. (ed.) (2012) The Habitats Directive – A Developer’s Obstacle Course? Oxford, UK: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Kaiser, M. J., Ramsay, K., Richardson, C. A., Spence, F. E. & Brand, A. R. (2000) Chronic fishing disturbance has changed shelf sea benthic community structure. Journal of Animal Ecology, 69, 494–503.Google Scholar
Kirby, K., Jefferson, R., Larwood, J., Russell, D., Le Bas, B. & Wright, R. (2010) What has the SSSI improvement programme achieved for nature conservation in England? British Wildlife, 22, 16–25.Google Scholar
Lake, S., Liley, D., Still, R. & Swash, A. (2015) Britain’s Habitats – A Guide to the Wildlife Habitats of Britain and Ireland. Woodstock, UK: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lawton, J. H., Brotherton, P. N. M., Brown, V. K. et al. (2010) Making Space for Nature: A Review of England’s Wildlife Sites and Ecological Network. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
Ledoux, L., Cornell, S., O’Riordan, T. et al. (2005) Towards sustainable flood and coastal management: identifying drivers of, and obstacles to, managed realignment. Land Use Policy, 2, 129–144.Google Scholar
Lee, R. (2010) Delivering landscape-scale habitat restoration and creation through spatial planning. Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.Google Scholar
Lewis, B., Griffiths, R. A. & Wilkinson, J. W. (2017) Population status of great crested newts (Triturus cristatus) at sites subjected to development mitigation. Herpetological Journal, 27, 133–142.Google Scholar
MacDonald, A., Heath, M. & Edwards, M. (2015) Climate driven trophic cascades affecting seabirds around the British Isles. Oceanography and Marine Biology – An Annual Review, 53, 55–80.Google Scholar
MacDonald, B. (2019) Rebirding: Rewilding Britain and Its Birds. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
Macgregor, C. J., Evans, D. M., Fox, R. & Pocock, M. J. O. (2017) The dark side of street lighting: impacts on moths and evidence for the disruption of nocturnal pollen transport. Global Change Biology, 23, 697–707.Google Scholar
Mackay, D. (1995) Scotland’s Rural Land Use Agencies. Aberdeen, UK: Scottish Cultural Press.Google Scholar
Maclean, N. (ed.) (2010) Silent Summer. The State of Wildlife in Britain and Ireland. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mair, L., Hill, J., Fox, R., Botham, M., Brereton, T. & Thomas, C. D. (2014) Abundance changes and habitat availability drive species’ responses to climate change. Nature Climate Change, 4, 127–131.Google Scholar
Marren, P. (2002) Nature Conservation: A Review of the Conservation of Wildlife in Britain 1950–2001. London: The New Naturalist, HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Marren, P. (2018) National Nature Reserves in crisis? British Wildlife, 29, 314–319.Google Scholar
Marren, P. (2020) Will Natural England survive? British Wildlife, 31, 173–178.Google Scholar
Martin, D., Fraser, M. D., Pakeman, R. J. & Moffat, A. M. (2013) Impact of moorland grazing and stocking rates. York, UK: Natural England, Evidence Review, Number 006.Google Scholar
Maskell, L. C., Firbank, L. G., Thompson, K., Bullock, J. M. & Smart, S. M. (2006) Interactions between non-native plant species and the floristic composition of common habitats. Journal of Ecology, 94, 1052–1060.Google Scholar
McCarthy, D. & Morling, P. (2015) Using Regulation as a Last Resort: Assessing the Performance of Voluntary Approaches. Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.Google Scholar
Miles, R. & Richardson, N. (2018) Sustainable Shores. Sandy, UK: RSPB. Technical Report.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. (2018) Roger Mitchell. In Marine Conservation: People, Ideas and Action, ed. Earll, B., pp. 47–60. Exeter, UK: Pelagic Publishing.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. J., Morecroft, M. D. & Acreman, M. (2007) England Biodiversity Strategy – towards adaptation to climate change. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
Monbiot, G. (2014) Feral: Rewilding the Land, the Sea and Human Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Moore, N. W. (1987) The Bird of Time: The Science and Politics of Nature Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Murgatroyd, M., Redpath, S. M., Murphy, S. G., Douglas, D. J. T., Saunders, R. & Amar, A. (2019) Patterns of satellite tagged hen harrier disappearances suggest widespread illegal killing on British grouse moors. Nature Communications, 10, 1094.Google Scholar
National Audit Office (2008) Natural England’s Role in Improving Sites of Special Scientific Interest. London: The Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Natural England (2009) Green Infrastructure Guidance. York, UK: Natural England.Google Scholar
Natural England (2011) Protecting England’s Natural Treasures – Sites of Special Scientific Interest. York, UK: Natural England.Google Scholar
Natural England (2016) Conservation 21. Natural England’s Conservation Strategy for the 21st Century. York, UK: Natural England.Google Scholar
Natural England (2019) Natural England Technical Information Note TIN176. A Framework for District Licensing of Development Affecting Great Crested Newts. York, UK: Natural England.Google Scholar
Natural England & JNCC (2010) Marine Conservation Zone Project Ecological Network Guidance. Peterborough, UK: JNCC and Natural England.Google Scholar
NCC (2015) The State of Natural Capital Protecting and Improving Natural Capital for Prosperity and Wellbeing. UK: Natural Capital Committee. Third report to the Economic Affairs Committee.Google Scholar
Nesbit, M., Ankersmit, L., Friel, A. & Colsa, A. (2017) Ensuring compliance with environmental obligations through a future UK-EU relationship. London: Institute for European Environmental Policy.Google Scholar
Newton, I. (2017) Farming and Birds. London: The New Naturalist, Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Newton, I. (2020) Uplands and Birds. London: Harper Collins (New Naturalist).Google Scholar
NSRF (2014) The Scottish Code for Conservation Translocations. Best Practice Guidelines for Conservation Translocations in Scotland Version 1.1. Edinburgh: Scottish Natural Heritage on behalf of the National Species Reintroduction Forum.Google Scholar
Ockendon, N., Baker, D. J., Carr, J. A. et al. (2014) Mechanisms underpinning climatic impacts on natural populations: altered species interactions are more important than direct effects. Global Change Biology, 20, 2221–2229.Google Scholar
OEP (2022a) Taking stock: protecting, restoring and improving the environment in England. Worcester, UK: The Office for Environmental Protection.Google Scholar
OEP (2022b) Advice on the Nature Recovery Green Paper. Worcester, UK: The Office for Environmental Protection.Google Scholar
OEP (2022c) Advice on environmental targets. Worcester, UK: The Office for Environmental Protection.Google Scholar
OSPAR (2006) Guidance on Developing an Ecologically Coherent Network of OSPAR Marine Protected Areas. (Reference number 2006-3). London: OSPAR Commission.Google Scholar
OSPAR (2017) Intermediate Assessment 2017 (IA 2017). London: OSPAR Commission.Google Scholar
Pearce-Higgins, J. W. (2021) Climate Change and the UK’s Birds. Thetford, UK: British Trust for Ornithology.Google Scholar
Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Beale, C. M., Oliver, T. H. et al. (2017) A national-scale assessment of climate change impacts on species: assessing the balance of risks and opportunities for multiple taxa. Biological Conservation, 213, 124–134.Google Scholar
Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Johnston, A., Ausden, M. et al. (2011) Final Report to the Climate Change Impacts on Avian Interests of Protected Area Networks (CHAINSPAN) Steering Group. Defra Ref: WC0750/CR0440.Google Scholar
Perry, A. L., Low, P. J., Ellis, J. R. & Reynolds, J. D. (2005) Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science, 308, 1912–1915.Google Scholar
Pescott, O. L., Simkin, J. M., August, T. A., Randle, Z., Dore, A. J. & Botham, M. S. (2015) Air pollution and its effects on lichens, bryophytes, and lichen-feeding Lepidoptera: review and evidence from biological records. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 115, 611–635.Google Scholar
Piper, J. M., Wilson, E. B., Weston, J., Thompson, S. & Glasson, J. (2006) Spatial planning for biodiversity in our changing climate. Peterborough, UK: English Nature, Research Report R677.Google Scholar
Potts, G. R. (1998) Global dispersion of nesting Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus; implications for grouse moors in the U.K. Ibis, 140, 76–88.Google Scholar
Preston, C. D., Roy, D. B. & Roy, H. E. (2012) What have we learnt from 50 years of biological recording? British Wildlife, 24, 97–106.Google Scholar
Proctor, M. (2013) Vegetation of Britain and Ireland. London: The New Naturalist Library, Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Pywell, R. F., Heard, M. S., Bradbury, R. B. et al. (2012). Wildlife-friendly farming benefits rare birds, bees and plants. Biology Letters, 8, 772–775.Google Scholar
Rackham, O. (1986) The History of the Countryside: The Classic History of Britain’s Landscape, Flora and Fauna. London: Orion Books Ltd.Google Scholar
Ratcliffe, D. A. (ed.) (1977) A Nature Conservation Review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ratcliffe, D. A. & Thompson, D. B. A. (1988) The British uplands: their ecological character and international significance. In Ecological Change in the Uplands, edsUsher, . M. B. & Thompson, D. B. A., pp. 9–36. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Rayment, M. (2017) Assessing the costs of Environmental Land Management in the UK. Final Report. A report for the RSPB, the National Trust and The Wildlife Trusts.Google Scholar
Rayment, M., Haines, R., McNeil, D., Conway, M., Tucker, G. M. & Underwood, E. (2014) Study on specific design elements of biodiversity offsets: biodiversity metrics and mechanisms for securing long term conservation benefits. London: ICF & IEEP Report to the European Commission.Google Scholar
Redpath, S., Amar, A., Smith, A., Thompson, D. B. A. & Thirgood, S. (2010) People and nature in conflict: can we reconcile hen harrier conservation and game management? In Species Management: Challenges and Solutions for the 21st Century, eds. Baxter, J. M. & Galbraith, C. A., pp. 335–350. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Resasco, J. (2019) Meta-analysis on a decade of testing corridor efficacy: what new have we learned? Current Landscape Ecology Reports, 4, 61–69.Google Scholar
Ricketts, S. & Bischoff, S. (2012) SANGs: The Thames Basin Case Study. In The Habitats Directive – A Developer’s Obstacle Course?, ed. Jones, G., pp. 119–138. Oxford, UK: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Robinson, L. A. & Frid, C. L. J. (2008) Historical marine ecology: examining the role of fisheries in changes to North Sea benthos. Ambio, 37, 362–371.Google Scholar
Roos, S., Smart, J., Gibbons, D. W. & Wilson, J. D. (2018) A review of predation as a limiting factor for bird populations in mesopredator‐rich landscapes: a case study of the UK. Biological Reviews, 93, 1915–1937.Google Scholar
RoTAP (2012) Review of Transboundary Air Pollution: Acidification, Eutrophication, Ground Level Ozone and Heavy Metals in the UK. Edinburgh: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology.Google Scholar
Rothschild, M. & Marren, P. (1997) Rothschild’s Reserves. Time and Fragile Nature. Colchester, UK: Balaban Publishers & Harley Books.Google Scholar
Rowell, T. A. (1991) SSSIs: a health check. London: Wildlife Link.Google Scholar
Roy, H. E., Bacon, J., Beckmann, B. et al. (2012). Non-native Species in Great Britain: establishment, detection and reporting to inform effective decision making. Wallingford, UK: NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.Google Scholar
RSPB (2018) The Illegal Killing of Birds of Prey in Scotland 2015–17. Sandy, UK: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.Google Scholar
RSPB (2021) Annual Report 2020–2021. www.rspb.org.uk/globalassets/downloads/annual-report-2021/rspb-annual-report-2020-2021_digital.pdf?sourcecode=GENWEB0026Google Scholar
Sandford, J. C. E. (1974) Report of the National Park Policies Review Committee. London: HM Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Sands, T. (2012) Wildlife in Trust: 100 Years of Nature Conservation. London: Elliott & Thompson.Google Scholar
Scottish Executive (2004) Scotland’s biodiversity: it’s in your hands. A strategy for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in Scotland. Edinburgh: The Scottish Executive.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2013) Challenge for Scotland’s biodiversity: a strategy for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in Scotland. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2015) Scotland’s biodiversity: a route map to 2020. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2016) Getting the best from our land: A Land Use Strategy for Scotland 2016–2021. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2020a) Scottish Government response to the report from the Grouse Moor Management Group. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2020b) Scotland’s Fourth National Planning Framework Position Statement. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2021) The Environment Strategy for Scotland: Initial Monitoring Framework. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Scottish Government (2022) Biodiversity Strategy to 2045: Tackling the Nature Emergency. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.Google Scholar
Sewell, J. & Hiscock, K. (2005) Effects of Fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for Nature Conservation Agencies. Plymouth, UK: Marine Biological Association.Google Scholar
Sharps, E., Hawkes, R. W., Bladon, A. J. et al. (2023) Reversing declines in farmland birds: How much agri?environment provision is needed at farm and landscape scales?.?Journal of Applied Ecology, 00, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14338Google Scholar
Sheail, J. (1998) Nature Conservation in Britain: the formative years. London: The Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Simmons, I. G. (2001) An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, S., Rowcroft, P., Everard, M. et al. (2015) Payments for Ecosystem Services: A Best Practice Guide. Updated edition. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
Smithers, R. J., Cowan, C., Harley, M., Hopkins, J. J., Pontier, H. & Watts, O. (2008) England Biodiversity Strategy Climate Change Adaptation Principles. Bristol, UK: DEFRA.Google Scholar
SNH (2009) Trend Note: a summary of land cover change in Scotland from 1947–1988. Edinburgh: Scottish Natural Heritage.Google Scholar
Stace, C. A. (2019) New Flora of the British Isles. 4th ed. Iver, UK: C&M Floristics – Pemberley Books.Google Scholar
Stafford, R., Chamberlain, B., Clavey, L. et al. (eds.) (2021) Nature-Based Solutions for Climate Change in the UK: A Report by the British Ecological Society. London: British Ecological Society.Google Scholar
Stamp, D. (1974) Nature Conservation in Britain. 2nd ed. London: The New Naturalist, Collins.Google Scholar
Stanbury, A., Eaton, M., Aebischer, N. et al. (2021) The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds, 114, 723–747.Google Scholar
Starnes, T., Beresford, A. E., Buchanan, G. M., Lewis, M., Hughes, A. & Gregory, R. D. (2021) The extent and effectiveness of protected areas in the UK. Global Ecology and Conservation, 30, e01745.Google Scholar
Still, K. & Byfield, A. J. (2010) Is Environmental Stewardship working for rare and threatened plants? Aspects of Applied Biology, 100, 279–286.Google Scholar
Stroh, P., Walker, K., Smith, S., Jefferson, R., Pinches, C. & Blackstock, T. (2019) Grassland Plants of the British and Irish Lowlands: Ecology, Threats and Management. Durham, UK: Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland.Google Scholar
Stroud, D. A., Bainbridge, I. P., Maddock, A. et al. (eds.) (2016) The Status of UK SPAs in the 2000s: The Third Network Review. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
Stroud, D. A., Chambers, D., Cook, S. et al. (eds.) (2001) The UK SPA Network: Its Scope and Content. Peterborough, UK: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.Google Scholar
Stroud, D. A., Pienkowski, M. W. & Mudge, G. P. (1990) Protecting internationally important bird sites: a review of the network of EC Special Protection Areas in Great Britain. Peterborough, UK: Nature Conservancy Council.Google Scholar
Stroud, D. A., Reed, T. M., Pienkowski, M. W. & Lindsay, R. A. (2015) The Flow Country: battles fought, war won, organisation lost. In Nature’s Conscience – The Life and Legacy of Derek Ratcliffe, eds. Thompson, D., Birks, J. & Birks, H., pp. 401–439. Norfolk, UK: Langford Press.Google Scholar
Sutherland, W. J., Armstrong-Brown, S., Armsworth, P. R. et al. (2006) The identification of one hundred ecological questions of high policy relevance in the UK. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 617–627.Google Scholar
Taylor, P. (2005) Beyond Conservation: A Wildland Strategy. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
TEEB (2011) The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity in National and International Policy Making. London and Washington: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Tew, T., Biggs, J. & Gent, T. (2018) District licensing for great crested newts – delivering a big idea. In Practice: Bulletin of the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management, 100, 33–37.Google Scholar
Thomas, C. D., Gillingham, P. K. & Bradbury, R. B. et al. (2012) Protected areas facilitate species’ range expansions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 14063–14068.Google Scholar
Thompson, D. B. A., MacDonald, A. J., Marsden, J. H. & Galbraith, C. A. (1995) Upland heather moorland in Great Britain: a review of international importance, vegetation change and some objectives for nature conservation. Biological Conservation, 71, 163–178.Google Scholar
Thompson, P. S., Douglas, D. J. T., Hoccom, D. G., Knott, J., Roos, S. & Wilson, J. D. (2016) Environmental impacts of high‐output driven shooting of Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scotica. Ibis, 158, 446–452.Google Scholar
Tingay, R. E. (2015) Natural injustice – Paper One: a review of the enforcement of wildlife protection legislation in Scotland. Perth, Scotland: Scottish Environment LINK.Google Scholar
Tree, I. (2018) Wilding: The Return of Nature to a British Farm. London: Picador.Google Scholar
Treweek, J. R. (2009) Scoping study for the design and use of biodiversity offsets in an English context. Final Report to Defra (Contract NE 0801). London: Defra.Google Scholar
Treweek, J. R. & Thompson, S. (1997) A review of ecological mitigation measures in UK Environmental Statements with a view to sustainable development. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 4, 40–50.Google Scholar
Tucker, G. M. & Baldock, D. (2018) The 25-Year Environment Plan – what promises for nature? British Wildlife, 29, 245–250.Google Scholar
UK Government (2021) The England Trees Action Plan 2021–2024. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/987432/england-trees-action-plan.pdfGoogle Scholar
UK NEA (2011) The UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report. Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC.Google Scholar
UKMMAS (2010) Charting Progress 2 – the state of UK seas. Report by the UK Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy community. London: DEFRA.Google Scholar
Vanguelova, E., Chapman, S. J., Perks, M. et al. (2018) Afforestation and Restocking on Peaty Soils – New Evidence Assessment. Edinburgh: ClimateXChange.Google Scholar
Vickery, J. A., Bradbury, R. B., Henderson, I. G., Eaton, M. A. & Grice, P. V. (2004) The role of agri-environment schemes and farm management practices in reversing the decline of farmland birds in England. Biological Conservation, 119, 19–39.Google Scholar
Walker, L. K., Morris, A. J., Cristinacce, A., Dadam, D., Grice, P. V. & Peach, W. J. (2018) Effects of higher-tier agri-environment scheme on the abundance of priority farmland birds. Animal Conservation, 21, 183–192.Google Scholar
Watson, H. (2008) Great Crested Newts and their protection: are we getting it all wrong? In Practice: Bulletin of the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management, 60, 25–28.Google Scholar
WCL (2022a) Response to Consultation on Nature Recovery Green Paper. Wildlife and Countryside Link, May 2022. www.wcl.org.uk/docs/WCL_NatureRecoveryGP_Response_May2022.pdfGoogle Scholar
WCL (2022b) What price deregulation? The environmental and social costs of the Retained EU Law Bill. Wildlife and Countryside Link. https://www.wcl.org.uk/docs/What_price_deregulation_Link_briefing_12_12_22.pdfGoogle Scholar
Webb, N. (1986) Heathlands: A Natural History of Britain’s Lowland Heaths. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Welsh Assembly Government (2006) Environment Strategy for Wales. Cardiff: Welsh Assembly Government.Google Scholar
Wende, W., Tucker, G., Quétier, F., Rayment, M. & Darbi, M. (2018) Biodiversity Offsets – European Perspectives on No Net Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar
Werritty, A., Pakeman, R. J., Shedden, C., Smith, A. & Wilson, J. D. (2015). A Review of Sustainable Moorland Management. Battleby, UK: Scottish Natural Heritage.Google Scholar
Whitfield, D. P. & Fielding, A. H. (2017). Analyses of the fates of satellite tracked golden eagles in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report.Google Scholar
The Wildlife Trusts (2018) The status of England’s Local Wildlife Sites 2018. Newark, UK: The Wildlife Trusts.Google Scholar
The WildLife Trusts (2020) Nature_Recovery_Network_Handbook. www.wildlifetrusts.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/Nature_Recovery_Network_Handbook_FINAL_Sept%202020.pdfGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. D., Evans, M. G. & Grice, P. V. (2009) Bird Conservation and Agriculture. Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. F., Baker, D., Cheney, J. et al. (2018) A role for artificial night-time lighting in long-term changes in populations of 100 widespread macro-moths in UK and Ireland: a citizen-science study. Journal of Insect Conservation, 22, 189–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodcock, B., Isaac, N., Bullock, J. et al. (2016) Impacts of neonicotinoid use on long-term population changes in wild bees in England. Nature Communications, 7, 12459.Google Scholar
Wotton, S., Brown, A., Burn, A. et al. (2009) Boom or bust – a sustainable future for reedbeds and Bitterns? British Wildlife, 20, 305–315.Google Scholar
WWF (2017) Delivering ecosystem-based marine spatial planning in practice: an assessment of the integration of the ecosystem approach into UK and Ireland Marine Spatial Plans. Woking, UK: WWF.Google Scholar
Wynne, G., Avery, M., Campbell, L. et al. (1993) Biodiversity Challenge: An Agenda for Conservation Action in the UK. 1st ed. Sandy, UK: RSPB.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×