Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T21:08:10.335Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Domain 3 - Disease Management: Recognition, Causes and Management

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2023

Edited by
Ned Gilbert-Kawai ,
Debashish Dutta  and
Carl Waldmann
Ned Gilbert-Kawai
Affiliation:
The Royal Liverpool Hospital
Debashish Dutta
Affiliation:
Princess Alexandra Hospital NHS Trust, Harlow
Carl Waldmann
Affiliation:
Royal Berkshire Hospital, Reading
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Intensive Care Medicine
The Essential Guide
 , pp. 83 - 456
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References and Further Reading

Ibanez, B, James, S, Agewall, S, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2018;39:119–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roffi, M, Patrono, C, Collet, J-P, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: Task Force for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2016;37:267–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thygesen, K, Alpert, JS, Jaffe, AS, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). Eur Heart J 2019;40:237–69.Google ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Holzmeister, J, Leclercq, C. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy. Lancet 2011;378:722–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacob, S, Panaich, SS, Maheshwari, P, Haddad, JW, Padanilam, BJ, John, SK. Clinical applications of magnets on cardiac rhythm management devices. Europace 2011;13:1222–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leyva, F. Pacing supplement: cardiac resynchronisation therapy – developments in heart failure management. Br J Cardiol 2018;25(Suppl 3):S12–19.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy for arrhythmias and heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta314Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Arrigo, M, Parissis, J, Akiyama, E, Mebazaa, A. Understanding acute heart failure: pathophysiology and diagnosis. Eur Heart J 2016;18(Suppl G):G11–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Acute heart failure: diagnosis and management. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg187Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for acute heart failure in adults. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg482Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2017. CentriMag for heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/advice/mib92Google Scholar
Yancy, C, Jessup, M, Bozkurt, B, et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2013;128:e240–327.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Baumgartner, H, Falk, V, Bax, JJ, et al. 2017 ESC/EACTS guidelines for the management of valvular heart disease. Eur Heart J 2017;38:2739–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonow, RO, Carabello, BA, Chatterjee, K, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease) developed in collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists and endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:e1–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maganti, K, Rigolin, VH, Sarano, ME, Bonow, RO. Valvular heart disease: diagnosis and management. Mayo Clin Proc 2010;85:483–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parrillo, JE, Dellinger, RP. Valvular heart disease in critical care. In: Parrillo, JE, Dellinger, RP (eds). Critical Care Medicine: Principles of Diagnosis and Management in the Adult, 4th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2014. pp. 548–75.Google Scholar
Vahanian, A, Baumgartner, H, Bax, J, et al.; Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease: The Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2007;28:230–68.Google ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Allan, CK. Intensive care of the adult patient with congenital heart disease. Progr Cardiovasc Dis 2011;53:274–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andropoulos, DB, Stayer, SA, Russell, IA. Anesthesia for Congenital Heart Disease. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell; 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, CD, Kane, LC. Congenital heart disease. In: Townsend, C, Beauchamp, RD, Evers, BM, Mattox, K (eds). Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 20th edn. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 2016. pp. 1619–57.Google Scholar
Kelleher, A. Adult congenital heart disease (grown-up congenital heart disease). Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:28–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, GD, Smallhorn, JF, Therrien, J, Redington, AN. Congenital heart disease. In: Mann, D, Zipes, D, Libby, P, Bonow, R, Braunwald, E (eds). Brawnwald’s Heart Disease. A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, 10th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2015. pp. 1391–445.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Habib, G, Lancellotti, P, Atunes, MJ, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: The Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J 2015;36:3075–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, D-H, Kim, Y-J, Kim, S-H, et al. Early surgery versus conventional treatment for infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 2012;366:2466–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2008. Antimicrobial prophylaxis against infective endocarditis in adults and children undergoing interventional procedures. Clinical guideline [CG64]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg64Google Scholar
Prendergast, BD, Tornos, P. Surgery for infective endocarditis: who and when? Circulation 2010;121:1141–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, V, Candililo, L, Hausenloy, DJ. Infective endocarditis: an intensive care perspective. Trends Anaes Crit Care 2010;2:36–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonneville, R, Mourvillier, B, Bouadma, L, Wolff, M. Management of neurological complications of infective endocarditis in ICU patients. Ann Intensive Care 2011;1:10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thury, F, Grisoli, D, Collart, F, Habib, G, Raoult, D. Management of infective endocarditis: challenges and perspectives. Lancet 2012;379:965–75.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Babar, TB, Basman, CL. Hypertension. In: Ferri, FF (ed). Ferri’s Clinical Advisor 2017. E-Book. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 639–643.e4.Google Scholar
Pinna, G, Pascale, C, Fornengo, P, et al. Hospital admissions for hypertensive crisis in emergency departments: a large multicenter Italian study. PLoS One 2014;9:393542.Google Scholar
Shayne, P, Lynch, CA. Hypertensive crisis. In: Adams, JG, Barton, ED, Collings, JL, DeBlieux, PMC, Gisondi, MA, Nadel, ES (eds). Emergency Medicine E-Book Clinical Essentials, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2013. pp. 592–601.e1.Google Scholar
Suneja, M, Sanders, L. Hypertensive emergency. Med Clin North Am 2017;101:465–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whelton, PK, Carey, RM, Aornow, WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Hypertension 2018;71:e13–115.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bersten, A, Soni, N (eds). Oh’s Intensive Care Manual, 6th edn. Edinburgh: Butterworth Heinemann; 2009.Google Scholar
Caldeira, D, David, C, Sampaio, C. Rate versus rhythm control in atrial fibrillation and clinical outcomes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2012;105:226–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
January, CT, Wann, LS, Alpert, JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation 2014;130:2071–104. Erratum in: Circulation 2014;130:e270–1.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy for arrhythmias and heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta314/chapter/1-GuidanceGoogle Scholar
Sibley, S, Muscedere, J. New-onset atrial fibrillation in critically ill patients. Can Respir J 2015;22:179–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Caforio, AL, Pankuweit, S, Arbustini, E, et al. Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2636–48, 264848a–d.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Adler, Y, Charron, P, Imazio, M, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Endorsed by: The European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J 2015;36:2921–64.Google Scholar
Bodson, L, Bouferrache, K, Vieillard-Baron, A. Cardiac tamponade. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011;17:416–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Imazio, M, Adler, Y. Management of pericardial effusion. Eur Heart J 2013;34:1186–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, AL, Abbara, S, Agler, DA, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with pericardial disease: endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2013;26:965–1012 e15.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Gordon, AC, Perkins, GD, Singer, M, et al. Levosimendan for the prevention of acute organ dysfunction in sepsis. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1638–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IABP-SHOCK II Trial Investigators. Intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation in acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock (IABP-SHOCK II): final 12 month results of a randomised, open-label trial. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1287–96.Google Scholar
Landoni, G, Lomivorotov, VV, Alvaro, G, et al. Levosimendan for hemodynamic support after cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:2021–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Semler, MW. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2018;378:829–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Chiappini, B, Schepens, M, Tan, E, et al. Early and late outcomes of acute type A aortic dissection: analysis of risk factors in 487 consecutive patients. Eur Heart J 2005;26:180–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erbel, R, Aboyans, V, Boileau, C, et al. 2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of aortic diseases: Document covering acute and chronic aortic diseases of the thoracic and abdominal aorta of the adult. The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Aortic Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2014;35:2873–926.Google ScholarPubMed
Erbel, R, Engberding, R, Daniel, W, Roelandt, J, Visser, C, Rennollet, H. Echocardiography in diagnosis of aortic dissection. Lancet 1989;1:457–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Hiratzka, LF, Bakris, GL, Beckman, JA, et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA/AATS/ACR/ASA/SCA/SCAI/SIR/STS/SVM guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with thoracic aortic disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Radiology, American Stroke Association, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Society for Vascular Medicine. Circulation 2010;121:e266–369.Google Scholar
Iliceto, S, Ettorre, G, Francioso, G, Antonelli, G, Biasco, G, Rizzon, P. Diagnosis of aneurysm of the thoracic aorta. Comparison between two non-invasive techniques: two-dimensional echocardiography and computed tomography. Eur Heart J 1984;5:545–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khandheria, BK, Tajik, AJ, Taylor, CL, et al. Aortic dissection: review of value and limitations of two-dimensional echocardiography in a six-year experience. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 1989;2:17–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mintz, GS, Kotler, MN, Segal, BL, Parry, WR. Two dimensional echocardiographic recognition of the descending thoracic aorta. Am J Cardiol 1979;44:232–8.Google Scholar
Nienaber, CA, von Kodolitsch, Y, Nicolas, V, et al. The diagnosis of thoracic aortic dissection by non-invasive imaging procedures. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novelline, RA, Rhea, JT, Rao, PM, Stuk, JL. Helical CT in emergency radiology. Radiology 1999;213:321–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sommer, T, Fehske, W, Holzknecht, N, et al. Aortic dissection: a comparative study of diagnosis with spiral CT, multiplanar transesophageal echocardiography, and MR imaging. Radiology 1996;199:347–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trimarchi, S, Nienaber, CA, Rampoldi, V, et al. Contemporary results of surgery in acute type A aortic dissection: The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2005;129:112–22.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Griffin, BR, Liu, KD, Teixeira, JP. Critical care nephrology: core curriculum 2020. Am J Kidney Dis 2020;75:435–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khwaja, A. KDIGO clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury. Nephron Clin Pract 2012;120:c179–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koyner, JL, Thakar, CV. Acute kidney injury and critical care nephrology. Nephrology Self-Assessment Program 2017;16(2).Google Scholar
Moore, PK, Hsu, RK, Liu, KD. Management of acute kidney injury: core curriculum 2018. Am J Kidney Dis 2018;72:136–48.Google ScholarPubMed
Ostermann, N, Joannidis, M. Acute kidney injury 2016: diagnosis and diagnostic workup. Crit Care 2016;20:299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ronco, C, Bellomo, R, Kellum, JA. Acute kidney injury. Lancet 2019;394:1949–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Blasco-Algora, S, Masegosa-Ataz, J, Gutiérrez-García, ML, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: pathogenesis, prognostic factors and management. World J Gastroenterol 2015;21:12125–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hernaez, R, Solà, E, Moreau, R, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: an update. Gut 2017;66:541–53.Google Scholar
Jalan, R, Yurdaydin, C, Bajaj, JS, et al. Toward an improved definition of acute-on-chronic liver failure. Gastroenterology 2014;147:4–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarin, SK, Kedarisetty, CK, Abbas, Z, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: consensus recommendations of the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL). Hepatol Int 2014;8:453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Anand, AC, Garg, HK. Approach to clinical syndrome of jaundice and encephalopathy in tropics. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015;5(Suppl 1):S116–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruger, D. The assessment of jaundice in adults: tests, imaging, differential diagnosis. JAAPA 2011;24:44–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Runyon, BA. Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012. Hepatology 2013;57:1651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Runyon, BA, Montano, AA, Akriviadis, EA, Antillon, MR, Irving, MA, McHutchison, JG. The serum-ascites albumin gradient is superior to the exudate-transudate concept in the differential diagnosis of ascites. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:215–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saab, S, Nieto, JM, Lewis, SK, Runyon, BA. TIPS versus paracentesis for cirrhotic patients with refractory ascites. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;4:CD004889.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Buob, S, Johnston, AN, Webster, CR. Portal hypertension: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. J Vet Intern Med 2011;25:169–86.Google Scholar
Iwakiri, Y. Pathophysiology of portal hypertension. Clin Liver Dis 2014;18:281–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leung, JC, Loong, TC, Pang, J, Wei, JL, Wong, VW. Invasive and non-invasive assessment of portal hypertension. Hepatol Int 2018;12(Suppl 1):44–55.Google Scholar
Strunk, H, Marinova, M. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS): pathophysiologic basics, actual indications and results with review of the literature. Rofo 2018;190:701–11.Google ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Grace, JA, Angus, PW. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: update on recent advances in pathophysiology, investigation, and treatment. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;28:213–19.Google Scholar
Krowka, MJ, Fallon, MB, Kawut, SM, et al. International Liver Transplant Society Practice Guidelines: diagnosis and management of hepatopulmonary syndrome and portopulmonary hypertension. Transplantation 2016;100:1440–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salerno, F, Gerbes, A, Gines, P, Wong, F, Arroyo, V. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007;56:1310–18.Google Scholar
Wong, F. The evolving concept of acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015;12:711–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Felipo, V. Hepatic encephalopathy: effects of liver failure on brain function. Nat Rev Neurosci 2013;14:851–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suraweera, D, Sundaram, V, Saab, S. Evaluation and management of hepatic encephalopathy: current status and future directions. Gut Liver 2016;10:509–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Wijdicks, E. Hepatic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1660–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Cadena, R, Sarwal, A. Emergency neurological life support: approach to the patient with coma. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):74–81.Google Scholar
Edlow, JA, Rabenstien, A, Traub, SJ, Wijdicks, EFM. Diagnosis of reversible causes of coma. Lancet 2014;384:2064–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farling, P, Andrews, PJD, Cruickshank, S, et al. Recommendations for the safe transfer of patients with brain injury. London: Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain & Ireland; 2006.Google Scholar
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. The Glasgow structured approach to assessment of the Glasgow Coma Scale. www.glasgowcomascale.orgGoogle Scholar
Souter, MJ, Blissitt, PA, Blosser, S, et al. Recommendations for the critical care management of devastating brain injury: prognostication, psychosocial, and ethical management. Neurocrit Care 2015;23:4–13.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Betjemann, JP, Lowenstein, DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol 2015;14:615–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brophy, GM, Bell, R, Claassen, J, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012;17:3–23.Google Scholar
Claassen, J, Goldstein, JN. Emergency neurological life support: status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):S152–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapur, J, Elm, J, Chamberlain, JM, et al. Randomized trial of three anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 2019;381:2103–13.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2004. Appendix F: Protocols for treating convulsive status epilepticus in adults and children. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg137/chapter/appendix-f-protocols-for-treating-convulsive-status-epilepticus-in-adults-and-children-adults#treating-convulsive-status-epilepticus-in-adults-published-in-2004Google Scholar
Scheffer, IE, Berkovic, S, Capovilla, G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for classification and terminology. Epilepsia 2017;58:512–21.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Gross, H, Grose, N. Emergency neurological life support: acute ischaemic stroke. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):S102–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Stroke and transient ischaemic attack in over 16s: diagnosis and initial management. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2008.Google Scholar
Powers, WJ, Rabinstein, AA, Ackerson, T, et al. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2018;49:e46–110.Google Scholar
Steiner, T, Al-Shahi Salman, R, Beer, R, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke 2014;9:840–55.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Brouwer, MC, McIntyre, P, Prasad, K, Van de Beek, D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;9:CD004405.Google Scholar
Van de Beek, D, de Gans, J, Spanjaard, L, Weisfelt, M, Reitsma, J, Vermeulen, M. Clinical features and prognostic factors in adults with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1849–59.Google Scholar
Van de Beek, D, de Gans, J, Tunkel, AR, Wijdicks, EF. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults. N Engl J Med 2006;354:44–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Ahmadsyah, I, Salim, A. Treatment of tetanus: an open study to compare the efficacy of procaine penicillin and metronidazole. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;291:648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rushdy, AA, White, JM, Ramsay, ME, Crowcroft, NS. Tetanus in England and Wales, 1984–2000. Epidemiol Infect 2003;130:71.Google Scholar
Santos, ML, Mota-Miranda, A, Alves-Pereira, A, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of tetanus. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:321.Google Scholar
Thwaites, CL, Farrar, JJ. Preventing and treating tetanus. BMJ 2003;326:117.Google Scholar
Thwaites, CL, Yen, LM, Loan, HT, et al. Magnesium sulphate for treatment of severe tetanus: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006;368:1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Barr, J, Fraser, GL, Puntillo, K, et al.; American College of Critical Care Medicine. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2013;41:263–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerejeira, J, Nogueira, V, Luís, P, Vaz-Serra, A, Mukaetova-Ladinska, EB. The cholinergic system and inflammation: common pathways in delirium pathophysiology. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012;60:669–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gusmao-Flores, D, Salluh, JI, Chalhub, RA, Quarantini, LC. The Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU) and Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC) for the diagnosis of delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Crit Care 2012;16:R115.Google Scholar
Mehta, S, Cook, D, Devlin, JW, et al. Prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes of delirium in mechanically ventilated adults. Crit Care Med 2015;43:557–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

De, Jonghe B, Sharshar, T, Lefaucheur, J-P, et al. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA 2002;288:2859.Google Scholar
Hough, CL, Lieu, BK, Caldwell, ES. Manual muscle strength testing of critically ill patients: feasibility and interobserver agreement. Crit Care 2011;15:R43.Google Scholar
Hughes, R, Cornblath, D. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet 2005;366:1653–66.Google Scholar
Sanders, DB, Wolfe, GI, Benatar, M, et al. International consensus guidance for management of myasthenia gravis: executive summary. Neurology 2016;87:419.Google Scholar
Yuki, N, Hartung, HP. Guillain–Barré syndrome. N Engl J Med 2012;366:2294.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bonner, S, Smith, C. Initial management of acute spinal cord injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:224–31.Google Scholar
New, PW, Marshall, R. International spinal cord injury data sets for non-traumatic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2014;52:123–32.Google Scholar
New, PW, Reeves, RK, Smith, E, et al. International retrospective comparison of inpatient rehabilitation for patients with spinal cord dysfunction: epidemiology and clinical outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2015;96:1080–7.Google Scholar
van den Berg, MEL, Castellote, JM, Mahillo-Fernandez, I, de Pedro-Cuesta, J. Incidence of spinal cord injury worldwide: a systematic review. Neuroepidemiology 2010;34:184–92.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Gralnek, I, Dumonceau, JM, Kuipers, E, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guidelines. Endoscopy 2015;47:1–46.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2012. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management. Clinical guideline [CG141]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg141Google Scholar
Osman, D, Djibre, M, Da, Silva D, Goulenok, C. Management by the intensivist of gastrointestinal bleeding in adults and children. Ann Intensive Care 2012;2:46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PEPTIC Investigators for the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group, Alberta Health Services Critical Care Strategic Clinical Network, the Irish Critical Care Trials Group; Young, PJ, Bagshaw, SM, Forbes, AB, et al. Effect of stress ulcer prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors vs histamine-2 receptor blockers on in-hospital mortality among ICU patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation: the PEPTIC randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2020;323:616–26.Google Scholar
Siau, K, Chapman, W, Sharma, N, et al. Management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an update for the general physician. J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2017;47:218–30.Google Scholar
Tripathi, D, Stanley, AJ, Hayes, PC, et al. UK guidelines on the management of variceal haemorrhage in cirrhotic patients. Gut 2015;64:1680–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, Y, Ye, Z, Ge, L, et al. Efficacy and safety of gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill patients: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2019;367:l16744.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Banks, PA, Bollen, TL, Dervenis, C, et al. Classification of acute pancreatitis–2012: revision of the Atlanta classification and definitions by international consensus. Gut 2013;62:102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsmark, C, Vege, SS, Wilcox, CM. Acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1972–81.Google Scholar
Meier, R, Ockenga, J, Pertkiewicz, M, et al. ESPEN Guidelines on enteral nutrition: pancreas. Clin Nutr 2006;25:275–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mirtallo, JM, Forbes, A, McClave, SA, et al. International consensus guidelines for nutrition therapy in pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012;36:284–91.Google Scholar
Sah, R, Dawra, RK, Saluja, AK. New insights into the pathogenesis of pancreatitis. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2013;29:523–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Doherty, GM. The acute abdomen. Loeb, MS, Davis, K (eds). Current Diagnosis and Treatment: Surgery, 13th edn. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2010. pp. 451–63.Google Scholar
Ellis, H, Calne, R, Watson, C. Peritonitis. In: Ellis, H, Calne, R, Watson, C (eds). Lecture Notes: General Surgery, 11th edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. pp. 231–6.Google Scholar
Karvellas, CJ, Abraldes, JG, Arabi, YM, et al.; Cooperative Antimicrobial Therapy of Septic Shock (CATSS) Database Research Group. Appropriate and timely antimicrobial therapy in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis-associated septic shock: a retrospective cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015;41:747–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mastoraki, A, Mastoraki, S, Tziava, E, et al. Mesenteric ischemia: pathogenesis and challenging diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2016;7:125–30.Google Scholar
Strachan, S, Soni, N. Intra-abdominal sepsis. In: Waldmann, C, Soni, N, Rhodes, A (eds). Oxford Desk Reference: Critical Care. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2008. p. 336.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bauer, A, Schwarz, NT, Moore, B, Türler, A, Kalff, JC. Ileus in critical illness: mechanisms and management. Curr Opin Crit Care 2002:8;152–7.Google Scholar
Garden, OJ, Parks, RW. Principles and Practice of Surgery, 7th edn. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2018.Google Scholar
Martindale, RG, McClave, SA, Vanek, VW, et al.; American College of Critical Care Medicine; ASPEN Board of Directors. 2009 Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: executive summary. Crit Care Med 2009;37:1757–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paulson, EK, Thompson, WM. Review of small-bowel obstruction: the diagnosis and when to worry. Radiology 2015;275;332–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, P, Dark, P. Ileus and obstruction in the critically ill. In: Webb, A, Angus, D, Finfer, S, Gattinoni, L, Singer, M (eds). Oxford Textbook of Critical Care, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 856–9.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Berry, N, Fletcher, S. Abdominal compartment syndrome. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:110–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, L, Frost, SA, Hillman, K, Newton, PJ, Davidson, PM. Management of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome: a review. J Trauma Manag Outcomes 2014;8:2.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, AW, Roberts, DJ, De, Waele J, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome: updated consensus definitions and clinical practice guidelines from the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2013;39:1190–206.Google Scholar
Santa-Teresa, P, Muñoz, J, Montero, I, et al. Incidence and prognosis of intra-abdominal hypertension in critically ill medical patients: a prospective epidemiological study. Ann Intensive Care 2012;2:S3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Attia, J, Ray, JG, Cook, DJ, Douketis, J, Ginsberg, JS, Geerts, WH. Deep vein thrombosis and its prevention in critically ill adults. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:1268–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Konstantinides, SV, Torbicki, A, Agnelli, G, et al. 2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2014;35:3033–80.Google Scholar
Konstantinides, SV, Vicaut, E, Danays, T, et al. Impact of thrombolytic therapy on the long-term outcome of intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017;69:1536–44.Google Scholar
Meyer, G, Vieillard-Baron, A, Planquette, B. Recent advances in the management of pulmonary embolism: focus on the critically ill patients. Ann Intensive Care 2016;6:19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollack, CV, Schreiber, D, Goldhaber, SZ, et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:700–6.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

British Thoracic Society. 2021. BTS/SIGN British guideline on the management of asthma. www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma/Google Scholar
Busse, WW, Calhoun, WF, Sedgwick, JD. Mechanism of airway inflammation in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147(6 Pt 2):S20–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
European Respiratory Society. EUROPEAN LUNG white book. www.erswhitebook.orgGoogle Scholar
Gibbison, B, Griggs, K, Mukherjee, M, et al. Ten years of asthma admissions to adult critical care units in England and Wales. BMJ Open 2013;3:e003420.Google Scholar
Horwitz, RJ, Busse, WW. Inflammation and asthma. Clin Chest Med 1995;16:583–602.Google Scholar
Lim, WJ, Akram, RM, Carson, KV, et al. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for treatment of respiratory failure due to severe acute exacerbations of asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;12:CD004360.Google Scholar
OECD and European Union. Health at a Glance: Europe 2016. State of Health in the EU Cycle. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2016. www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-europe-2016_9789264265592-enGoogle Scholar
Office for National Statistics. 2016. Asthma deaths in England and Wales, 2001 to 2015 occurrences. www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/adhocs/005955asthmadeathsinenglandandwales2001to2015occurrencesGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Physicians. 2015. Why asthma still kills. National Review of Asthma Deaths. www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/why-asthma-still-killsGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Davidson, AC, Banham, S, Elliott, M, et al. BTS/ICS guideline for the ventilatory management of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in adults. Thorax 2016;71:ii1–ii35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. goldcopd.orgGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2010. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management. Clinical guideline [CG101]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg101Google Scholar
Soler-Cataluña, JJ, Martínez-García, MA, Román, Sánchez P, Salcedo, E, Navarro, M, Ochando, R. Severe acute exacerbations and mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:925–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Kalil, AC, Metersky, ML, Klompas, M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis 2016;63:e61–111.Google Scholar
Kohno, S, Seki, M, Takehara, K, et al. Prediction of requirement for mechanical ventilation in community-acquired pneumonia with acute respiratory failure: a multicenter prospective study. Respiration 2013;85:27–35.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, G. The definition and classification of pneumonia. Pneumonia (Nathan) 2016;8:14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metlay, JP, Fine, MJ. Testing strategies in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:109–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. 2016. ICD-10 Version: 2016. apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/enGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network; Brower, RG, Matthay, MA, Morris, A, et al. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Baig, S, Ahmad, S, Devogel, N, et al. Risk factors for the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in patients with pneumonia, a nationwide retrospective study using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) Database from year 2002–2012. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;193:A1826.Google Scholar
Bellani, G, Laffey, JG, Pham, T, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016;315:788–800.Google Scholar
Guérin, C, Reignier, J, Richard, J-C, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). N Engl J Med 2013;368:2159–68.Google Scholar
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network; Wiedemann, HP, Wheeler, AP, Bernard, GR, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2564–75.Google ScholarPubMed
Papazian, L, Forel, JM, Gacouin, A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2010;363:1107–16.Google Scholar
Ranieri, VM, Rubenfeld, GD, Thompson, BT, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012;307:2526–33.Google Scholar
Retamal, J, Libuy, J, Jiménez, M, et al. Preliminary study of ventilation with 4 ml/kg tidal volume in acute respiratory distress syndrome: feasibility and effects on cyclic recruitment – derecruitment and hyperinflation. Crit Care 2013;17:R16.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Gandhi, SK, Powers, JC, Nomeir, AM, et al. The pathogenesis of acute pulmonary oedema associated with hypertension. N Engl J Med 2001;344:17–22.Google Scholar
Griffiths, MJD, McAuley, DF, Perkins, GD, et al. Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. BMJ Open Respir Res 2019;6:e000420.Google Scholar
Patel, BK, Wolfe, KS, Pohlman, AS, Hall, JB, Kress, JP. Effect of non-invasive ventilation delivered by helmet vs facemask on the rate of endotracheal intubation in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomised clinical trial. JAMA 2016;14:2435–41.Google Scholar
Ponikowski, P, Voors, AA, Ankers, SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: The Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J 2016;37;2129–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vital, FMR, Ladeira, MT, Atallah, AN. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (CPAP or bilevel NPPV) for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;5:CD005351.Google Scholar
Ware, LB, Matthay, MA. Acute pulmonary oedema. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2788–96.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Hoeper, MM, Galie, N, Murali, S, et al. Outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:341–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoeper, MM, Granton, J. Intensive care unit management of patients with severe pulmonary hypertension and right heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184:1114–24.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, S, Miyauchi, T, Sakai, S, et al. Elevated levels of plasma endothelin-1 in young patients with pulmonary hypertension caused by congenital heart disease are decreased after successful surgical repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995;110:271–3.Google Scholar
Rubin, LJ, Hopkins, W. Clinical features and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension of unclear etiology in adults. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: Wolters Kluwer Health. www.uptodate.com/contents/8249Google Scholar
Simonneau, G, Gatzoulis, MA, Adatia, I, et al. Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;62(25 Suppl):D34–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zamanian, RT, Haddad, F, Doyle, RL, Weinacker, AB. Management strategies for patients with pulmonary hypertension in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2007;35:2037–50.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Harper, NJN, Dixon, T, Dugué, P, et al.; Working Party of the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. Suspected anaphylactic reactions associated with anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2009;64:199–211.Google Scholar
Muñoz-Cano, R, Pascal, M, Araujo, G, et al. Mechanisms, cofactors, and augmenting factors involved in anaphylaxis. Front Immunol 2017;26:1193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resuscitation Council UK. 2021. Emergency treatment of anaphylactic reactions: guidelines for healthcare providers. www.resus.org.uk/library/additional-guidance/guidance-anaphylaxis/emergency-treatmentGoogle Scholar
Simons, FE, Ardusso, LR, Bilo, MB, et al. World Allergy Organization guidelines for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 2011;4:13–37.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Chaplin, D. Overview of the human immune response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:S430–5.Google Scholar
McGoughlin, S, Padiglione, AA. Host defence mechanisms and immunodeficiency disorders. In: Bersten, A, Soni, N (eds). Oh’s Intensive Care Manual, 7th edn. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann; 2014. pp. 703–9.Google Scholar
Nikita, R, Dinakar, C. Overview of immunodeficiency disorders. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2015;35:599–623.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Andrade, HB, Shinotsuka, CR, da Silva, IRF, et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy for critically ill HIV patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2017;12:e0186968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV basics. www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
HIVinfo.NIH.gov. Clinical guidelines [guidelines on use of anti-retroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV]. aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelinesGoogle Scholar
Huang, L, Quartin, A, Jones, D, et al. Intensive care of patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2006;355:173–81.Google Scholar
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 2019. UNAIDS data 2019. www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/2019-UNAIDS-data_en.pdfGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Angus, D, van der Poll, T. Severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2013;369:840–51.Google Scholar
Gyawali, B, Ramakrishna, K, Dhamoon, AS. Sepsis: the evolution in definition, pathophysiology, and management. SAGE Open Med 2019;7:1–13.Google Scholar
Howell, MD, Davis, AM. Management of sepsis and septic shock. JAMA 2017;317:847–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Opal, SM, Wittebole, X. Biomarkers of infection and sepsis. Crit Care Clin 2020;36:11–22.Google Scholar
Singer, M, Deutschman, CS, Seymour, CW, et al. The Third International consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA 2016;315:801–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

References and Further Reading

Marshall, JC. Measuring organ dysfunction. Med Klin Intensivmed Notfmed 2020;115(Suppl 1):15–20.Google Scholar
Ramírez, M. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2013;43:273–7.Google Scholar
Singer, M. The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis-induced multi-organ failure. Virulence 2014;5:66–72.Google Scholar
Varela, ML, Mogildea, M, Moreno, I, et al. Acute inflammation and metabolism. Inflammation 2018;41:1115–27.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). www.cdc.gov/hai/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Khan, HA, Baig, FK, Mehboob, R. Nosocomial infections: epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2017;7:478–82.Google Scholar
Lyons, PG, Kollef, MH. Prevention of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 2018;24:370–8.Google Scholar
Rigby, R, Pegram, A, Woodward, S. Hand decontamination in clinical practice: a review of the evidence. Br J Nurs 2017;26:448–51.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bechar, J, Sepehripour, S, Hardwicke, J, Filobbos, G. Laboratory risk indicator for necrotising fasciitis (LRINEC) score for the assessment of early necrotising fasciitis: a systematic review of the literature. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2017;99:341–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnham, JP, Kirby, JP, Kollef, MH. Diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections in the intensive care unit: a review. Intensive Care Med 2016;42:1899–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnham, JP, Kollef, MH. Understanding toxic shock syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2015;41:1707–10.Google Scholar
Cranendonk, DR, van Vught, LA, Wiewel, MA, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with cellulitis requiring intensive care. JAMA Dermatol 2017;153:578–82.Google Scholar
Creamer, D, Walsh, SA, Dziewulski, P, et al. UK guidelines for the management of Stevens–Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis in adults 2016. Br J Dermatol 2016;174:1194–227.Google Scholar
Medical Advisory Secretariat. Pressure ulcer prevention: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2009;9:1–104.Google Scholar
National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, Pan Pacific Pressure Injury Alliance. 2014. Prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers: quick reference guide. www.epuap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/quick-reference-guide-digital-npuap-epuap-pppia-jan2016.pdfGoogle Scholar
Wong, CH, Khin, LW, Heng, KS, Tan, KC, Low, CO. The LRINEC (Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis) score: a tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1535–41.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Covington, EW, Roberts, MZ, Dong, J. Procalcitonin monitoring as a guide for antimicrobial therapy: a review of current literature. Pharmacotherapy 2018;38:569–81.Google Scholar
Cunha, B, Hage, J, Schoch, P, Cunha, C, Bottone, E, Torres, D. Overview of antimicrobial therapy. In: Cunha, CB, Cunha, BA (eds). Antibiotic Essentials, 11th edn. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2012. pp. 2–15.Google Scholar
Lamy, B, Dargère, S, Arendrup, MC, Parienti, J-J, Tattevin, P. How to optimize the use of blood cultures for the diagnosis of bloodstream infections? A state-of-the-art. Front Microbiol 2016;7:697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leekha, S, Terrell, CL, Edson, RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 2011;86:156–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vincent, J-L, Rello, J, Marshall, J, et al. International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA 2009;302:2323.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Cunha, B, Torres, D, Hage, J, et al. Antibiotic pearls and pitfalls and antimicrobial drug summaries. In: Cunha, CB, Cunha, BA (eds). Antibiotic Essentials, 11th edn. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2012. pp. 507–718.Google Scholar
Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. General properties of antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 13–67.Google Scholar
Kapoor, G, Saigal, S, Elongavan, A. Action and resistance mechanisms of antibiotics: a guide for clinicians. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2017;33:300.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Berríos-Torres, SI, Umscheid, CA, Bratzler, DW, et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guideline for the prevention of surgical site infection, 2017. JAMA Surg 2017;152:784.Google Scholar
de Jonge, SW, Gans, SL, Atema, JJ, Solomkin, JS, Dellinger, PE, Boermeester, MA. Timing of preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in 54,552 patients and the risk of surgical site infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017;96:e6903.Google Scholar
Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. Resistance to antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 119–69.Google Scholar
Vincent, J-L, Bassetti, M, François, B, et al. Advances in antibiotic therapy in the critically ill. Crit Care 2016;20:133.Google Scholar
Wright, GD. Q&A: Antibiotic resistance: where does it come from and what can we do about it? BMC Biol 2010;8:123.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. General properties of antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 67–77.Google Scholar
Lepak, A, Andes, D. Fungal sepsis: optimizing antifungal therapy in the critical care setting. Crit Care Clin 2011;27:123–47.Google Scholar
Moghnieh, R, Kanafani, ZA, Kanj, SS. Antifungal use in intensive care units: another uncertainty that highlights the need for precision medicine. J Thorac Dis 2016;8:E1672–5.Google Scholar
Timsit, J-F, Perner, A, Bakker, J, et al. Year in review in Intensive Care Medicine 2014: III. Severe infections, septic shock, healthcare-associated infections, highly resistant bacteria, invasive fungal infections, severe viral infections, Ebola virus disease and paediatrics. Intensive Care Med 2015;41:575–88.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Dandachi, D, Rodriguez-Barradas, MC. Viral pneumonia: etiologies and treatment. J Investig Med 2018;66:957–65.Google Scholar
Dobson, J, Whitley, RJ, Pocock, S, Monto, AS. Oseltamivir treatment for influenza in adults: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet 2015;385:1729–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008.Google Scholar
Kelesidis, T, Mastoris, I, Metsini, A, Tsiodras, S. How to approach and treat viral infections in ICU patients. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:321.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Karnad, DR, Richards, GA, Silva, GS, et al. Tropical diseases in the ICU: a syndromic approach to diagnosis and treatment. J Crit Care 2018;46:119–26.Google Scholar
Lalloo, DG, Shingadia, D, Bell, DJ, et al. UK malaria treatment guidelines 2016. J Infect 2016;72:635–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, M, Gupta-Wright, A, Doherty, J, et al. Managing malaria in the intensive care unit. Br J Anaesth 2014;113:910–21.Google Scholar
Public Health England. 2018. Malaria imported into the United Kingdom: 2018. Implications for those advising travellers. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/812824/Malaria_imported_into_the_United_Kingdom_2018.pdfGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, D, Donegan, S, Isba, R, Lalloo, DG. Artesunate versus quinine for treating severe malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;6:CD005967.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. 2021. WHO guidelines for malaria. www.who.int/publications/i/item/guidelines-for-malariaGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Lipsitch, M, Donnelly, CA, Fraser, C, et al. Potential biases in estimating absolute and relative case-fatality risks during outbreaks. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015;9:e0003846.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2020. COVID-19 rapid guideline: critical care in adults. NICE guideline [NG159]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng159Google Scholar
Siddiqu, HK, Mehra, MR. COVID-19 illness in native and immunosuppressed states: a clinical-therapeutic staging proposal. J Heart Lung Transplant 2020;39:405–7.Google Scholar
The Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine. 2020. FICM Position Statement and Provisional Guidance: Recovery and Rehabilitation for Patients Following the Pandemic. www.ficm.ac.uk/sites/ficm/files/documents/2021-10/ficm_recovery_and_rehab_provisional_guidance.pdfGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. 2018. Managing epidemics: key facts about major deadly diseases. apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272442Google Scholar
Wu, Z, McGoogan, JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020;323:1239–42.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Rasimas, JJ, Sinclair, CM. Assessment and management of toxidromes in the critical care unit. Crit Care Clin 2017;33:521–41.Google Scholar
Roberts, TN, Thompson, JP. Illegal substances in anaesthetic and intensive care practices. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:42–6.Google Scholar
Wyatt, J, Illingworth, R, Graham, CA, Hogg, K, Robertson, C, Clancy, M. Toxicology. In: Wyatt, J, Illingworth, R, Graham, C, Hogg, K, Robertson, C, Clancy, M (eds). Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine, 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. pp. 179–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, JL. Poisonings and overdoses in the intensive care unit: general and specific management issues. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2794–801.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Chu, J, Johnston, TA, Geoghegan, J; Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2019. Maternal collapse in pregnancy and the puerperium. Green-top guideline No. 56. obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.15995Google Scholar
Green, LJ, Mackillop, LH, Salvi, D, et al. Gestation-specific vital sign reference ranges in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2020;135:653–64.Google Scholar
Greer, O, Shah, NM, Johnson, MR. Maternal sepsis update: current management and controversies. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist 2020;22:45–55.Google Scholar
Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar
Knight, M, Bunch, K, Vousden, N, et al.; UK Obstetric Surveillance System SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Pregnancy Collaborative Group. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women admitted to hospital with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK: national population based cohort study. BMJ 2020;369:m2107.Google Scholar
Mushambi, MC, Kinsella, SM, Popat, M, et al. Obstetric Anaesthetists’ Asociation and Difficult Airway Society guidelines for the management of difficult and failed tracheal intubation in obstetrics. Anaesthesia 2015;70:1286–306.Google Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2011. Antepartum haemorrhage. Green-top guideline No. 63. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_63.pdfGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2012. Bacterial sepsis in pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 64a. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_64a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2012. Bacterial sepsis following pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 64b. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_64b.pdfGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2015. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and puerperium. Green-top guideline No. 37a. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2016. Postpartum haemorrhage, prevention and management. Green-top guideline No. 52. www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg52/Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Dennis, AT, Solnordal, CB. Acute pulmonary oedema in pregnant women. Anaesthesia 2012;67:646–59.Google Scholar
Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2019. Hypertension in pregnancy: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG133]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133/chapter/RecommendationsGoogle Scholar
Spasovski, G, Vanholder, R, Allolio, B, et al.; Hyponatraemia Guideline Development Group. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Eur J Endocrinol 2014;170:G1–47. Erratum in: Eur J Endocrinol 2014;171:X1.Google Scholar
The Regulation and Quality Improvement Authority. 2017. Guideline for the prevention, diagnosis and management of hyponatraemia in labour and the immediate postpartum period. www.rqia.org.uk/RQIA/files/df/dfd57ddd-ceb3-4c0d-9719-8e33e179d0ff.pdfGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2017. Management of inherited bleeding disorders in pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 71. obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1471-0528.14592Google Scholar
Royal College of Anaesthetists. 2018. Care of the critically ill woman in childbirth; enhanced maternal care. www.rcoa.ac.uk/sites/default/files/documents/2019-09/EMC-Guidelines2018.pdfGoogle Scholar
Simpson, NB, Shankar-Hari, M, Rowan, KM, et al. Maternal risk modelling in critical care – development of a multivariable risk prediction model for death and prolonged intensive care. Crit Care Med 2020;48:663–72.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Baker, P, Platton, S, Gibson, C, et al.; British Society for Haematology, Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force. Guidelines on the laboratory aspects of assays used in haemostasis and thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2020;191:347–62.Google Scholar
Curry, NS, Davenport, R, Pavord, S, et al. The use of viscoelastic haemostatic assays in the management of major bleeding: a British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol 2018;182:789–806.Google Scholar
Levi, M, Toh, CH, Thachil, J, Watson, HG. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation. British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol 2009;145:24–33.Google Scholar
Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Scully, M, Hunt, BJ, Benjamin, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and other thrombotic microangiopathies. Br J Haematol 2012;158:323–35.Google Scholar
Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar
Watson, H, Davidson, S, Keeling, D; Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: second edition. Br J Haematol 2012;159:528–40.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Keeling, D, Tait, RC, Watson, H; British Committee of Standards for Haematology. Peri-operative management of anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy. Br J Haematol 2016;175:602–13.Google Scholar
Kitchen, S, Gray, E, Mackie, I, Baglin, T, Makris, M; BCSH Committee. Measurement of non-coumarin anticoagulants and their effects on tests of haemostasis: guidance from the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol 2014;166:830–41.Google Scholar
Makris, M, Van Veen, JJ, Tait, CR, Mumford, AD, Laffan, M; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guideline on the management of bleeding in patients on antithrombotic agents. Br J Haematol 2013;160:35–46.Google Scholar
Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Estcourt, LJ, Birchall, J, Allard, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol 2017;176:365–94.Google Scholar
Oteng-Ntim, E, Pavord, S, Howard, R, et al.; British Society for Haematology Guideline. Management of sickle cell disease in pregnancy. A British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol 2021;194:980–95.Google Scholar
Retter, A, Wyncoll, D, Pearse, R, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the management of anaemia and red cell transfusion in adult critically ill patients. Br J Haematol 2013;160:445–64.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J, Winters, JL, Padmanabhan, A, et al. Guidelines on the use of therapeutic apheresis in clinical practice-evidence-based approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis: the sixth special issue. J Clin Apher 2013;28:145–284.Google Scholar
Shander, A, Javidroozi, M, Lobel, G. Patient blood management in the intensive care unit. Transfus Med Rev 2017;31:264–71.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Foot, C, Hickson, L. Leadership skills in the ICU. In: Webb, A, Angus, D, Finfer, S, Gattinoni, L, Singer, M (eds). Oxford Textbook of Critical Care, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 64–70.Google Scholar
Intensive Care Society. 2001. Guidelines for the transport of the critically ill adult. Standards and guidelines. www.baccn.org/static/uploads/resources/ICSStandardsTransport.pdfGoogle Scholar
Lee, DW, Santomasso, BD, Locke, FL, et al. ASTCT consensus grading for cytokine release syndrome and neurologic toxicity associated with immune effector cells. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2019;25:625–38.Google Scholar
Matthey, F, Parker, A, Rule, SA, et al. Facilities for the treatment of adults with haematological malignancies – ‘levels of care’: BCSH Haemato-Oncology Task Force 2009. Hematology 2010;15:63–9.Google Scholar
Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2014.Google Scholar
Townsend, WM, Holroyd, A, Pearce, R, et al. Improved intensive care unit survival for critically ill allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients following reduced intensity conditioning. Br J Haematol 2013;161:578–86.Google Scholar
Wise, MP, Barnes, RA, Baudouin, SV, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the management and admission to intensive care of critically ill adult patients with haematological malignancy in the UK. Br J Haematol 2015;171:179–88.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Estcourt, LJ, Birchall, J, Allard, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol 2017;176:365–94.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M, Monroe, DM. A cell-based model of hemostasis. Thromb Haemost 2001;85:958–65.Google Scholar
Holcomb, JB, Tilley, BC, Baraniuk, S, et al. Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015;313:471–82.Google Scholar
Hunt, B. Bleeding and coagulopathies in critical care. N Engl J Med 2014;370:847–59.Google Scholar
Retter, A, Barrett, NA. The management of abnormal haemostasis in the ICU. Anaesthesia 2015;70(Suppl 1):121–7, e40–1.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bradshaw, K, Smith, M. Disorders of sodium balance after brain injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2008;8:129–33.Google Scholar
Cecconi, M, Hochrieser, H, Chew, M, et al. Preoperative abnormalities in serum sodium concentrations are associated with higher in-hospital mortality in patients undergoing major surgery. Br J Anaesth 2016;116:63–9.Google Scholar
Ellison, DH, Berl, T. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2064–72.Google Scholar
Verbalis, JG, Goldsmith, SR, Greenberg, A, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of hyponatraemia: expert panel recommendations. Am J Med 2013;126:S1–42.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Clase, CM, Carrero, JJ, Ellison, DH, et al.; Conference Participants. Potassium homeostasis and management of dyskalemia in kidney diseases: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. Kidney Int 2020;97:42–61.Google Scholar
Cook, S-C, Thomas, M, Nolan, J, Parr, M. Potassium. In: Cook, S-C, Thomas, M, Nolan, J, Parr, M (eds). Key Topics in Critical Care. London: JP Medical Publishers; 2014. pp. 273–5.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2013. Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital. Clinical guideline [CG174]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg174Google Scholar
Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Aguillera, IM, Vaughan, RS. Calcium and the anaesthetist. Anaesthesia 2000;55:779–90.Google Scholar
Bushinsky, DA, Monk, RD. Calcium. Lancet 1998;352:306–11.Google Scholar
Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

British Thoracic Society. 2021. BTS/SIGN British guideline on the management of asthma. www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma/Google Scholar
Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar
The Magpie Trial Collaborative Group. Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;359:1877–90.Google Scholar
Weisinger, JR, Bellorín-Font, E. Magnesium and phosphorus. Lancet 1998;352:391–6.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Gaasbeek, A, Meinders, AE. Hypophosphatemia: an update on its etiology and treatment. Am J Med 2005;118:1094–101.Google Scholar
Penido, MG, Alon, US. Phosphate homeostasis and its role in bone health. Pediatr Nephrol 2012;27:2039–48.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, RL, Siddiqui, S. Phosphate homeostasis in critical care. BJA Educ 2016;16:305–9.Google Scholar
Weisinger, JR, Bellorín-Font, E. Magnesium and phosphorus. Lancet 1998;352:391–6.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes data and statistics. www.cdc.gov/diabetes/dataGoogle Scholar
Joint British Diabetes Societies Inpatient Care Group. 2013. The management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in adults, September 2013. www.diabetes.org.ukGoogle Scholar
Scott, AR; Joint British Diabetes Societies (JBDS) for Inpatient Care; JBDS hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic guidelines group. Management of hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state in adults with diabetes. Diabet Med 2015;32:714-24.Google Scholar
[No authors listed]. Use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus: abbreviated Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Fenske, W, Stork, S, Koschker, AC, et al. Value of fractional uric acid excretion in differential diagnosis of hyponatremic patients on diuretics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:2991–7.Google Scholar
Hannon, M, Thompson, CJ. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone: prevalence, causes and consequences. Eur J Endocrinol 2010;162:S5–12.Google Scholar
Spasovski, G, Vanholder, R, Allolio, B, et al. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Eur J Endocrinol 2014;170:G1.Google Scholar
Sterns, RH, Hix, JK, Silver, SM. Management of hyponatremia in the ICU. Chest 2013;144:672–9.Google Scholar
Verbalis, JG, Greenberg, A, Burst, V, et al. Diagnosing and treating the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Am J Med 2016;129:537.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bhasin, B, Velez, JC. Evaluation of polyuria: the roles of solute loading and water diuresis. Am J Kidney Dis 2016;67:507–11.Google Scholar
Bockenhauer, D, Bichet, DG. Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Nat Rev Nephrol 2015;11:576.Google Scholar
Fenske, W, Allolio, B. Current state and future perspectives in the diagnosis of diabetes insipidus: a clinical review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:3426–37.Google Scholar
Robertson, GL. Diabetes insipidus: differential diagnosis and management. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016;30:205–18.Google Scholar
Timper, K, Fenske, W, Kühn, F, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of copeptin in the differential diagnosis of the polyuriapolydipsia syndrome: a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:2268.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Akamizu, T, Satoh, T, Isozaki, O, et al.; Japan Thyroid Association. Diagnostic criteria, clinical features, and incidence of thyroid storm based on nationwide surveys. Thyroid 2012;22:661–79.Google Scholar
Burch, HB, Wartofsky, L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyrotoxic storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1993;22:263–77.Google Scholar
Nayak, B, Burman, K. Thyrotoxicosis and thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2006;35:663–86, vii.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Annane, D, Sebille, V, Charpentier, C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002;288:862–71.Google Scholar
Messotten, D, Vanhorebeek, I, Van den Berghe, G. The altered adrenal axis and treatment with glucocorticoids during critical illness. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008;4:496–505.Google Scholar
Rhodes, A, Evans, LE, Alhazzani, W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2016. Crit Care Med 2017;45:486–552.Google Scholar
Sprung, CL, Annane, D, Keh, D, et al. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 2008;358:111–24.Google Scholar
Venkatash, B, Finfer, S, Cohen, J, et al. Adjunctive glucocorticoid therapy in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 2018;378:797–808.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Carney, N, Totten, AM, O’Reilly, C, et al. 2016. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, 4th edn. braintrauma.org/uploads/13/06/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfGoogle Scholar
Cooper, DJ, Rosenfeld, JV, Murray, L, et al. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1493–502.Google Scholar
Hawthorne, C, Piper, I. Monitoring of intracranial pressure in patients with traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 2014;5:121.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, PJ, Kolias, AG, Timofeev, IS, et al. Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1119–30.Google Scholar
Stocchetti, N, Carbonara, M, Citerio, G, et al. Severe traumatic brain injury: targeted management in the intensive care unit. Lancet Neurol 2017;16:452–64.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Ardekian, L, Samet, N, Shoshani, Y. Life threatening bleeding following maxillofacial trauma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 1993;21:336–40.Google Scholar
Bajwa, JSB, Kaur, J, Singh, A, et al. Clinical and critical care concerns of craniofacial trauma: a retrospective study in a tertiary care institute. Natl J Maxillofac Surg 2012;3:133–8.Google Scholar
Le Fort, R. Experimental study of fractures of the upper jaw. Rev Chir Paris 1901;23:208–27 [reprint: Plast Rconstr Surg 1972;50:497–506].Google Scholar
Marentette, LJ, Valentino, J. Traumatic anterior cranial fossa cerebrospinal fluid fistulae and craniofacial considerations. Otolaryn Clin North Am 1991;24:151–63.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Albert, JM, Smith, CE. Advanced anesthetic considerations for thoracic trauma. ASA Monitor 2015;79:24–8.Google Scholar
Allman, KG, Wilson, IH. Traumatic chest injuries. In: Allman, K, Wilson, I, O’Donnell, A (eds). Oxford Handbook of Anaesthesia, 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 856–8.Google Scholar
American College of Surgeons. ATLS® Advanced Trauma Life Support®. Student course manual, 9th edn. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2012. pp. 94–111.Google Scholar
Parry, NG, Moffat, B, Vogt, K. Blunt thoracic trauma: recent advances and outstanding questions. Curr Opin Crit Care 2015;21:544–8.Google Scholar
Schellenberg, M, Inaba, K. Critical decisions in the management of thoracic trauma. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2018;36:135–47.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

ATLS Subcommittee; American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma; International ATLS working group. Advanced trauma life support (ATLS®): the ninth edition. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2013;74:1363–6.Google Scholar
Bonner, S, Smith, C. Initial management of acute spinal cord injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:224–31.Google Scholar
Denton, M, McKinlay, J. Cervical cord injury and critical care. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2009;9:82–6.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. International perspectives on spinal cord injury. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

American College of Surgeons. ATLS® Advanced Trauma Life Support®. Student course manual, 9th edn. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2012.Google Scholar
Kalff, JC, Wehner, S, Litkouhi, B. 2021. Postoperative ileus. www.uptodate.com/contents/postoperative-ileusGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, AW, Roberts, DJ, De Waele, J, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome: updated consensus definitions and clinical practice guidelines from the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. Intensive Care Med 39:1190–206.Google Scholar
Smith, T, Pinnock, C, Lin, T, Jones, R (eds). Fundamentals of Anaesthesia, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Athanassiadi, KA. Infections of the mediastinum. Thorac Surg Clin 2009;19:37–45.Google Scholar
El Oakley, RM, Wright, JE. Postoperative mediastinitis: classification and management. Ann Thoracic Surg 1996;61:1030–6.Google Scholar
Ennker, IC, Ennker, JC. Management of sterno-mediastinitis. HSR Proc Intensive Care Cardiovasc Anesth 2012;4:233–41.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Layon, AJ, Modell, JH. Drowning update 2009. Anesthesiology 2009;110:1390–40.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. WHO Global Report on Drowning: preventing a leading killer. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Clarey, A, Trainor, D. Critical care management of severe burns and inhalational injury. Anaesth Intensive Care Med 2017;18:395–400.Google Scholar
Guttormsen, A, Berger, M, Sjoberg, F, Heisterkamp, H. 2012. Burns injury. European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) PACT module.Google Scholar
Midlands Burn Care Network. www.mcctn.org.uk/burns.htmlGoogle Scholar
Snell, J, Loh, N-H, Mahambrey, T, Shokrollahi, K. Clinical review: the critical care management of the burn patient. Crit Care 2013;17:241.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Association of Anaesthetists. 2020. Malignant hyperthermia 2020. anaesthetists.org/Portals/0/PDFs/Guidelines%20PDFs/Guideline%20Malignant%20hyperthermia%202020.pdf?ver=2021-01-13-144236-793Google Scholar
Dunkley, E, Isbister, G, Sibbritt, D, Dawson, A, Whyte, I. The Hunter serotonin toxicity criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity. QJM 2003;96:635–42.Google Scholar
Grogan, H, Hopkins, P. Heat stroke: implications for critical care and anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2002;88:700–7.Google Scholar
Musselman, M, Saeley, S. Diagnosis and treatment of drug-induced hyperthermia. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2013;70:34–42.Google Scholar
Walter, E, Carraretto, M. Drug-induced hyperthermia in critical care. J Intensive Care Soc 2015;16:306–11.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Ahmed, AM, Ahmed, M, Nadeem, A, et al. Emergency treatment of a snake bite: pearls from literature. J Emerg Trauma Shock 2008;1:97–105.Google Scholar
Bane, V, Lehane, M, Dikshit, M, et al. Tetrodotoxin: chemistry, toxicity, source, distribution and detection. Toxins (Basel) 2014;6:693–755.Google Scholar
Cegolon, L, Heymann, WC, Lange, JH, et al. Jellyfish stings and their management: a review. Mar Drugs 2013;11:523–50.Google Scholar
Eddleston, M, Warrell, D. Poisoning and envenoming. In: Davidson, R, Brent, A, Seale, A (eds). Oxford Handbook of Tropical Medicine, 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2014. pp. 882–91.Google Scholar
Montgomery, L, Seys, J, Mees, J. To pee or not to pee: a review on envenomation and treatment in European jellyfish species. Mar Drugs 2016;14:127.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Brett, S. Blast injury and gunshot wounds: pathophysiology and principles of management. In: Bersten, AD, Soni, N (eds). Oh’s Intensive Care Manual, 6th edn. Elsevier; 2009. pp. 867–76.Google Scholar
Frangos, SG, Freitas, M, Frankel, H. Intensive care of the trauma patient with ballistic injuries. In: Mahoney, PF, Ryan, JM, Schwab, CW (eds). Ballistic Trauma. London: Springer; 2005. pp. 445–64.Google Scholar
Goorah, S, Hindocha, S. Management of ballistic soft tissue injuries: a review. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences 2013;8:28–35.Google Scholar
Hull, JB, Bowyer, GW, Cooper, GJ, et al. Pattern of injury in those dying from traumatic amputation caused by bomb blast. Br J Surg 1994;81:1132–5.Google Scholar
Rabinovici, R, Frankel, H, Kaplan, L. Trauma evaluation and resuscitation. Cure Probl Surg 2003;40:599–681.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Crews, M, Garry, D, Phillips, C, et al. Deprivation of liberty in intensive care. J Intensive Care Soc 2014;15:320–4. www.mentalcapacitylawandpolicy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/1504320.pdfGoogle Scholar
Department of Constitutional Affairs. Mental Capacity Act 2005: Code of Practice. London: The Stationery Office; 2007. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/497253/Mental-capacity-act-code-of-practice.pdfGoogle Scholar
e-learning for healthcare. 2017. e-Learning deprivation of liberty safeguards. Health Education England in partnership with the Royal College of Psychiatrists. www.e-lfh.org.uk/programmes/deprivation-of-liberty-safeguards/Google Scholar
legislation.gov.uk. 1983. Mental Health Act 1983. www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/20/contentsGoogle Scholar
Macovei, M. The right to liberty and security of the person. A guide to the implementation of Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Strasbourg: Council of Europe; 2002. web.archive.org/web/20110707041600/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D7297F8F-88DB-42B0-A831-FB4D1223164A/0/DG2ENHRHAND052004.pdfGoogle Scholar
White, DB. 2017. Ethics in the intensive care unit: informed consent. www.uptodate.com/contents/ethics-in-the-intensive-care-unit-informed-consentGoogle Scholar

References and Further Reading

Hallman, MR, Joffe, AM. ICU management of traumatic brain injury. Curr Anaesthesiol Rep 2013;3:89–97.Google Scholar
Helmy, A, Vizcaychipi, M, Gupta, AK. Traumatic brain injury: intensive care management. Br J Anaesth 2007;99:32–42.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2010. Delirium: prevention, diagnosis and management. Clinical guideline [CG103]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg103/chapter/1-guidance#treating-deliriumGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2015. Violence and aggression: short-term management in mental health, health and community settings. NICE guideline [NG10]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng10/chapter/recommendations#terms-used-in-this-guidelineGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2015. Challenging behaviour and learning disabilities: prevention and interventions for people with learning disabilities whose behaviour challenges. NICE guideline [NG11]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng11/chapter/1-Recommendations#general-principles-of-care–2Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Ambulkar, RP, Patil, VP, Moiyadi, AV. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a diagnostic challenge. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2012;28:517–19.Google Scholar
Boyer, EW, Shannon, M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1112–20.Google Scholar
Kateon, H. Differentiating serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Mental Health Clinician 2013;3:129–33.Google Scholar
National Organization for Rare Disorders. 2004. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/neuroleptic-malignant-syndrome/Google Scholar
Sternbach, H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705–13.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bongar, B, Berman, AL, Maris, RW, Silverman, MM, Packman, W, Harris, EA. Risk Management with Suicidal Patients. New York, NY: The Guildford Press; 1998.Google Scholar
Davidhizar, R, Vance, A. The management of the suicidal patient in a critical care unit. J Nurs Manage 1993;1:95–102.Google Scholar
Saunders, KEA, Hawton, K, Fortune, S, Farrell, S. Attitudes and knowledge of clinical staff regarding people who self-harm: a systematic review. J Affect Disord 2012;139:205–16.Google Scholar
Walker, X, Lee, J, Koval, L, et al. Predicting ICU admissions from attempted suicide presentations at an Emergency Department in Central Queensland. Australas Med J 2013;6:536–41.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bienvenu, OJ, Neufeld, KJ. Post-traumatic stress disorder in medical settings: focus on the critically ill. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2010;13:3–9.Google Scholar
Groves, JE. Difficult patients. In: Stern, TA, Fricchione, GL, Cassem, NH (eds). Massachusetts General Hospital Handbook of General Hospital Psychiatry, 5th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2004. pp. 78–81.Google Scholar
Hatch, R, McKechnie, S, Griffiths, J. Psychological intervention to prevent ICU-related PTSD: who, when and for how long?Crit Care 2011;15:141.Google Scholar
Mealer, M, Jones, J, Moss, M. A qualitative study of resilience and post-traumatic stress disorder in United States ICU nurses. Intensive Care Med 2012;38:1445–51.Google Scholar
Myhren, H, Ekeberg, O, Toien, K, Karlsson, S, Stokland, O. Posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression symptoms in patients during the first year post intensive care unit discharge. Crit Care 2010;14:R14.Google Scholar
Wade, D, Hardy, R, Howell, D, Mythen, M. Identifying clinical and psychological risk factors for PTSD after ICU: a systematic review. Minerva Anestesiol 2013;79:944–63.Google Scholar
Wake, S, Kitchiner, D. Post-traumatic stress disorder after intensive care: a patient’s journey. BMJ 2013;346:3232.Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Garimella, PS, Joffe, A, Velho, V. Street drug abuse leading to critical illness. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:1526–36.Google Scholar
Habal, R. 2016. Heroin toxicity treatment and management. emedicine.medscape.com/article/166464-treatmentGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2019. Alcohol withdrawal management for acute admissions to hospital. www.nice.org.uk/sharedlearning/alcohol-withdrawal-management-for-acute-admissions-to-hospitalGoogle Scholar
Royal College of Physicians. 2012. Alcohol dependence and withdrawal in the acute hospital. www.rcplondon.ac.uk/guidelines-policy/alcohol-dependence-and-withdrawal-acute-hospitalGoogle Scholar
Subramaniam, K, Gowda, RM, Jani, K, Zewedie, W, Ute, R. Case report: propofol combined with lorazepam for severe poly substance misuse and withdrawal states in intensive care unit: a case series and review. Emerg Med J 2003;21:632–4.Google Scholar
Tetrault, JM, O’Connor, PG. Substance abuse and withdrawal in the critical care setting. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:767–88, viii.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. 2009. Clinical guidelines for withdrawal management and treatment of drug dependence in closed settings. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310654/Google Scholar

References and Further Reading

Bagnall, AM, Jones, R, Akter, H, Woodall, J. 2016. Interventions to prevent burnout in high risk individuals: evidence review. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/506777/25022016_Burnout_Rapid_Review_2015709.pdfGoogle Scholar
Ford, S. 2016. Critical care nurses at higher risk of burnout. The Nursing Times. www.nursingtimes.net/news/workforce/critical-care-nurses-at-higher-risk-of-burnout/7006269.articleGoogle Scholar
General Medical Council. 2013. Good Medical Practice: risks posed by your health. www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/good_medical_practice/your_health.aspGoogle Scholar
Myhren, H, Ekeberg, O, Stokland, O. Job satisfaction and burnout among intensive care unit nurses and physicians. Crit Care Res Pract 2013;2013:786176.Google Scholar
Poncet, MC, Toullic, P, Papazian, L, et al. Burnout syndrome in critical care nursing staff. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;175:698–704.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×