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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 May 2011
Hail usages of pristine mould,
And ye that guard them, mountains old!
Wordsworth: Dedication to Sonnets on the river Duddon.§ 1. Idwal, surnamed Foel (the Bald), succeeded his father Anarawd as king of Gwynedd; and Howel ab Cadell obtained, as his birthright, the kingdoms of Deheubarth and Powys, and was also elected supreme sovereign of Wales—Brenhin Penraithl—in conformity with that triad of Dyfnal Moelmud, which describes the latter dignity as belonging to the ruler who has the oldest title of possession of the kings of a federate country. The character of Howel must have exercised an early and potent influence over the mind of his cousin Idwal, for no interruption of peace and friendship followed the severance of paramount authority from the sceptre of Gwynedd and the subjection of the elder to a younger branch of Rhodri's race.
Ethelfleda, in concert with her brother King Edward, employed the whole term of her widowhood in carrying out the plan of their father King Alfred, for the defence of England against the Danes, by building fortresses in advantageous positions, and supplying them with garrisons ever ready to protect each endangered locality. The royal friends had obviously a second object in view, and Wigmore, Bridgenorth, Cherbury, Edesbury, and other strongholds, were so placed as to repress the excursions of the Welsh, and to prevent all intercourse with their brethren of Cumbria and Strath Clyde.
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