Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T11:09:12.196Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

28 - Food versus Eating Addictions

from Part V - Ongoing and Future Research Directions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2020

By
Erica M. Schulte ,
Emma. T. Schiestl  and
Ashley N. Gearhardt
Edited by
Steve Sussman
Steve Sussman
Affiliation:
University of Southern California
Get access

Summary

Evidence for the idea that some individuals may experience an addictive-like response to certain foods has grown in the past decade. Food addiction parallels substance use disorders to suggest that highly processed foods (e.g., chocolate, French fries) may exhibit an addictive potential and trigger addictive-like responses in vulnerable individuals. An opposing conceptualization of addictive-like eating was recently developed, suggesting that the behavioral act of eating may be addictive rather than highly processed foods. However, the arguments for a behavioral eating addiction do not consider the central role of behaviors within substance use disorders and are not supported by preliminary research demonstrating that highly processed foods may directly contribute to the addictive-like eating phenotype. The primary goal of this chapter is to argue that a substance-based, food addiction framework is the most appropriate reflection of the current state of the literature and more closely parallels scientific understanding of addictive disorders. Specifically, this chapter will review theoretical debates between the food versus eating addiction perspectives, raise concerns about discrepancies between eating addiction and existing behavioral addictions, and review assessment tools for food and eating addiction. Finally, implications for stigma, intervention, and future research are discussed.

Keywords

food versus eating addictionprocessed foodsYFASAEBScognitive behavior therapyMotivational Interviewingharm reductiontwelve-steppharmacotherapy
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Substance and Behavioral Addictions , pp. 340 - 351
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahmed, S. H., Avena, N. M., Berridge, K. C., Gearhardt, A. N. & Guillem, K. (2013). Food addiction. In Neuroscience in the 21st Century. Springer, pp. 2833–2857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013a). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013b). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Retrieved from http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=556Google Scholar
Anderson, P., Chisholm, D. & Fuhr, D. C. (2009). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of policies and programmes to reduce the harm caused by alcohol. The Lancet, 373(9682), 2234–2246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnow, B., Kenardy, J. & Agras, W. S. (1992). Binge eating among the obese: A descriptive study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(2), 155–170. doi:10.1007/bf00848323CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avena, N. M., Bocarsly, M. E., Rada, P., Kim, A. & Hoebel, B. G. (2008a). After daily bingeing on a sucrose solution, food deprivation induces anxiety and accumbens dopamine/acetylcholine imbalance. Physiology & Behavior, 94(3), 309–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avena, N. M., Rada, P. & Hoebel, B. G. (2008b). Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(1), 20–39. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avena, N. M., Rada, P. & Hoebel, B. G. (2009). Sugar and fat bingeing have notable differences in addictive-like behavior. The Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 623–628.Google Scholar
Balster, R. L. (1991). Drug abuse potential evaluation in animals. British Journal of Addiction, 86(12), 1549–1558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. (1996). Food reward: Brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 20(1), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaszczynski, A. & Nower, L. (2002). A pathways model of problem and pathological gambling. Addiction, 97(5), 487–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bocarsly, M. E., Berner, L. A., Hoebel, B. G. & Avena, N. M. (2011). Rats that binge eat fat-rich food do not show somatic signs or anxiety associated with opiate-like withdrawal: Implications for nutrient-specific food addiction behaviors. Physiology & Behavior, 104(5), 865–872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boggiano, M. M., Artiga, A. I., Pritchett, C. E., et al. (2007). High intake of palatable food predicts binge-eating independent of susceptibility to obesity: An animal model of lean vs obese binge-eating and obesity with and without binge-eating. International Journal of Obesity, 31(9), 1357–1367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boggiano, M. M., Dorsey, J. R., Thomas, J. M. & Murdaugh, D. L. (2009). The Pavlovian power of palatable food: Lessons for weight-loss adherence from a new rodent model of cue-induced overeating. International Journal of Obesity (London), 33(6), 693–701. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.57CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brownley, K. A., Berkman, N. D., Sedway, J. A., Lohr, K. N. & Bulik, C. M. (2007). Binge eating disorder treatment: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(4), 337–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, K. B. (1996). Substance use reduction in the context of outpatient psychiatric treatment: A collaborative, motivational, harm reduction approach. Community Mental Health Journal, 32(3), 291–306.Google Scholar
Carroll, K. M., Ball, S. A., Nich, C., et al. (2006). Motivational interviewing to improve treatment engagement and outcome in individuals seeking treatment for substance abuse: A multisite effectiveness study. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 81(3), 301–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, L. P., Stitzer, M. L., Henningfield, J. E., et al. (2009). Abuse liability assessment of tobacco products including potential reduced exposure products. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 18(12), 3241–3262. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-0948Google Scholar
Carter, W. P., Hudson, J. I., Lalonde, J. K., et al. (2003). Pharmacologic treatment of binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34(S1), S74–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassin, S. E., von Ranson, K. M., Heng, K., Brar, J. & Wojtowicz, A. E. (2008). Adapted motivational interviewing for women with binge eating disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(3), 417.Google Scholar
Chappel, J. N. & DuPont, R. L. (1999). Twelve-step and mutual-help programs for addictive disorders. Psychiatric Clinics, 22(2), 425–446.Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Russell, M. & George, W. H. (1988). Coping, expectancies, and alcohol abuse: A test of social learning formulations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(2), 218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corsica, J. A. & Pelchat, M. L. (2010). Food addiction: True or false? Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, 26(2), 165–169. doi:10.1097/MOG.0b013e328336528dCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corwin, R. L. (2006). Bingeing rats: A model of intermittent excessive behavior? Appetite, 46(1), 11–15. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2004.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corwin, R. L. & Grigson, P. S. (2009). Symposium overview – Food addiction: Fact or fiction? Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 617–619. doi:10.3945/jn.108.097691Google Scholar
Davis, C. & Carter, J. C. (2009). Compulsive overeating as an addiction disorder. A review of theory and evidence. Appetite, 53(1), 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2009.05.018Google Scholar
Davis, C., Curtis, C., Levitan, R. D., et al. (2011). Evidence that ‘food addiction’ is a valid phenotype of obesity. Appetite, 57(3), 711–717. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.08.017Google Scholar
Davis, C. & Mason, A. (2020). Prevention and treatment of “food addiction” In Sussman, S. (Ed.) The Cambridge Handbook of Substance and Behavioral Addictions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 230–240.Google Scholar
Donny, E. C., Houtsmuller, E. & Stitzer, M. L. (2007). Smoking in the absence of nicotine: Behavioral, subjective and physiological effects over 11 days. Addiction, 102(2), 324–334. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01670.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eiser, J. R. (1985). Smoking: The social learning of an addiction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 3(4), 446.Google Scholar
Emrick, C. D., Tonigan, J. S., Montgomery, H. & Little, L. (1993). Alcoholics anonymous: What is currently known? In McCrady, B. S. & Miller, W. R. (Eds.), Research on Alcoholics Anonymous: Opportunities and Alternatives. Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, pp. 41–76.Google Scholar
Epel, E., Lapidus, R., McEwen, B. & Brownell, K. (2001). Stress may add bite to appetite in women: A laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26(1), 37–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
“Food Addicts Anonymous.” FAA. Accessed January 23, 2020. http://www.foodaddictsanonymous.org/faa-food-planGoogle Scholar
Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R. & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430–436. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003Google Scholar
Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R. & Brownell, K. D. (2016). Development of the Yale Food Addiction Scale Version 2.0. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(1), 113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gearhardt, A. N., Davis, C., Kuschner, R. & Brownell, K. D. (2011a). The addiction potential of hyperpalatable foods. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 4(3), 140–145.Google Scholar
Gearhardt, A. N., Murray, S. & Avena, N. M. (2015). Emerging evidence of addiction in problematic eating behavior. Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Gearhardt, A. N., Yokum, S., Orr, P. T., et al. (2011b). Neural correlates of food addiction. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(8), 808–816. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.32CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilhooly, C., Das, S., Golden, J., et al. (2007). Food cravings and energy regulation: The characteristics of craved foods and their relationship with eating behaviors and weight change during 6 months of dietary energy restriction. International Journal of Obesity, 31(12), 1849–1858.Google Scholar
Gold, M. S., Frost-Pineda, K. & Jacobs, W. S. (2003). Overeating, binge eating, and eating disorders as addictions. Psychiatric Annals, 33(2), 117–122.Google Scholar
Goldfein, J. A., Walsh, B. T., LaChaussee, J. L., Kissileff, H. R. & Devlin, M. J. (1993). Eating behavior in binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disordorders, 14(4), 427–431.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffiths, M. (1999). Gambling technologies: Prospects for problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 15(3), 265–283.Google Scholar
Guss, J. L., Kissileff, H. R., Devlin, M. J., Zimmerli, E. & Walsh, B. T. (2002). Binge size increases with body mass index in women with binge-eating disorder. Obesity Research, 10(10), 1021–1029. doi:10.1038/oby.2002.139Google Scholar
Hadigan, C. M., Kissileff, H. R. & Walsh, B. T. (1989). Patterns of food selection during meals in women with bulimia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 50(4), 759–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagan, M. M., Chandler, P. C., Wauford, P. K., Rybak, R. J. & Oswald, K. D. (2003). The role of palatable food and hunger as trigger factors in an animal model of stress induced binge eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34(2), 183–197. doi:10.1002/eat.10168Google Scholar
Haney, M. (2009). Self-administration of cocaine, cannabis and heroin in the human laboratory: Benefits and pitfalls. Addiction Biology, 14(1), 9–21. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00121.xGoogle Scholar
Hardman, C. A., Rogers, P. J., Dallas, R., et al. (2015). “Food addiction is real”. The effects of exposure to this message on self-diagnosed food addiction and eating behaviour. Appetite, 91, 179–184.Google Scholar
Hebebrand, J., Albayrak, Ö., Adan, R., et al. (2014). “Eating addiction”, rather than “food addiction”, better captures addictive-like eating behavior. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 295–306.Google Scholar
Herz, A. (1997). Endogenous opioid systems and alcohol addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 129(2), 99–111.Google Scholar
Higgins, S. T., Budney, A. J., Bickel, W. K., et al. (1994). Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(7), 568–576.Google Scholar
Hoebel, B. G., Avena, N. M., Bocarsly, M. E. & Rada, P. (2009). Natural addiction: A behavioral and circuit model based on sugar addiction in rats. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 3(1), 33–41. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31819aa621CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphreys, K. (2003). Circles of Recovery: Self-Help Organizations for Addictions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hwa, L. S., Chu, A., Levinson, S. A., et al. (2011). Persistent escalation of alcohol drinking in C57BL/6J mice with intermittent access to 20% ethanol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(11), 1938–1947. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01545.xGoogle Scholar
Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., et al. (2009). Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 72(5), 518–526. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.035Google Scholar
Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., et al. (2015). Clearing the confusion around processed food addiction. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 34(3), 240–243. doi:10.1080/07315724.2015.1022466Google Scholar
Johnson, P. M. & Kenny, P. J. (2010). Dopamine D2 receptors in addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats. Nature Neuroscience, 13(5), 635–641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kadden, R. (1995). Cognitive-Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy Manual: A Clinical Research Guide for therapists treating Individuals with Alcohol Abuse and Dependence. DIANE Publishing.Google Scholar
Keys, A., Brožek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelsen, O. & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The Biology of Human Starvation. (Two volumes.) University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kim, S., Shou, J., Abera, S. & Ziff, E. B. (2017). Sucrose withdrawal induces depression and anxiety-like behavior by Kir2.1 upregulation in the nucleus accumbens. Neuropharmacology, 130, 10–17. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.041Google Scholar
Klatsky, A. L., Armstrong, M. A. & Kipp, H. (1990). Correlates of alcoholic beverage preference: Traits of persons who choose wine, liquor or beer. British Journal of Addiction, 85(10), 1279–1289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koob, G. F. & Kreek, M. J. (2007). Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(8), 1149–1159. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05030503Google Scholar
Krystal, J. H., Cramer, J. A., Krol, W. F., Kirk, G. F. & Rosenheck, R. A. (2001). Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(24), 1734–1739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latner, J. D., Puhl, R. M., Murakami, J. M. & O'Brien, K. S. (2014). Food addiction as a causal model of obesity. Effects on stigma, blame, and perceived psychopathology. Appetite, 77, 77–82. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.004Google Scholar
Lee, N. M., Hall, W. D., Lucke, J., Forlini, C. & Carter, A. (2014). Food addiction and its impact on weight-based stigma and the treatment of obese individuals in the U.S. and Australia. Nutrients, 6(11), 5312–5326. doi:10.3390/nu6115312CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, D. T., Chaloupka, F. & Gitchell, J. (2004). The effects of tobacco control policies on smoking rates: A tobacco control scorecard. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 10(4), 338–353.Google Scholar
Lile, J. A. & Nader, M. A. (2003). The abuse liability and therapeutic potential of drugs evaluated for cocaine addiction as predicted by animal models. Current Neuropharmacology, 1(1), 21–46.Google Scholar
Magill, M. & Ray, L. A. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral treatment with adult alcohol and illicit drug users: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70(4), 516–527.Google Scholar
Marlatt, G. A. & Witkiewitz, K. (2002). Harm reduction approaches to alcohol use: Health promotion, prevention, and treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 27(6), 867–886.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, W. R. & Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Niaura, R. (2000). Cognitive social learning and related perspectives on drug craving. Addiction, 95(8s2), 155–163.Google Scholar
O'Brien, C. P. & Gardner, E. L. (2005). Critical assessment of how to study addiction and its treatment: human and non-human animal models. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 108(1), 18–58.Google Scholar
Oliver, G. & Wardle, J. (1999). Perceived effects of stress on food choice. Physiology & Behavoir, 66(3), 511–515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oliver, G., Wardle, J. & Gibson, E. L. (2000). Stress and food choice: A laboratory study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(6), 853–865.Google Scholar
Oser, M. L., McKellar, J., Moos, B. S. & Moos, R. H. (2010). Changes in ambivalence mediate the relation between entering treatment and change in alcohol use and problems. Addictive Behaviors, 35(4), 367–369.Google Scholar
Oswald, K. D., Murdaugh, D. L., King, V. L. & Boggiano, M. M. (2011). Motivation for palatable food despite consequences in an animal model of binge eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 44(3), 203–211.Google Scholar
Petry, N. M., Ammerman, Y., Bohl, J., et al. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for pathological gamblers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 555.Google Scholar
Polk, S. E., Schulte, E. M., Furman, C. R. & Gearhardt, A. N. (2017). Wanting and liking: Separable components in problematic eating behavior? Appetite, 115, 45–53. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.11.015Google Scholar
Potenza, M. N. (2008). Review. The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B, 363(1507), 3181–3189. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0100Google Scholar
Pursey, K. M., Collins, C. E., Stanwell, P. & Burrows, T. L. (2015). Foods and dietary profiles associated with ‘food addiction’ in young adults. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 2, 41–48.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. J., Burghardt, P. R., Patterson, C. M., et al. (2015). Individual differences in cue-induced motivation and striatal systems in rats susceptible to diet-induced obesity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(9), 2113–2123. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.71Google Scholar
Rosen, J. C., Leitenberg, H., Fisher, C. & Khazam, C. (1986). Binge‐eating episodes in bulimia nervosa: The amount and type of food consumed. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(2), 255–267.Google Scholar
Ruddock, H. K., Christiansen, P., Halford, J. C. G. & Hardman, C. A. (2017). The development and validation of the Addiction-like Eating Behaviour Scale. International Journal of Obesity (London), 41(11), 1710–1717. doi:10.1038/ijo.2017.158Google Scholar
Russell‐Mayhew, S., von Ranson, K. M. & Masson, P. C. (2010). How does overeaters anonymous help its members? A qualitative analysis. European Eating Disorders Review, 18(1), 33–42.Google Scholar
Scherbaum, N., Kluwig, J., Specka, M., et al. (2005). Group psychotherapy for opiate addicts in methadone maintenance treatment – A controlled trial. European Addiction Research, 11(4), 163–171.Google Scholar
Schulte, E. M., Avena, N. M. & Gearhardt, A. N. (2015). Which foods may be addictive? The roles of processing, fat content, and glycemic load. PLoS ONE, 10(2), e0117959.Google Scholar
Schulte, E. M., Potenza, M. N. & Gearhardt, A. N. (2017a). A commentary on the “eating addiction” versus “food addiction” perspectives on addictive-like food consumption. Appetite, 115, 9–15. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.10.033Google Scholar
Schulte, E. M., Potenza, M. N. & Gearhardt, A. N. (2017b). How much does the addiction-like eating behaviour scale add to the debate regarding food versus eating addictions? International Journal of Obesity, 42(4), 946.Google Scholar
Schulte, E. M., Smeal, J. K. & Gearhardt, A. N. (2017). Foods are differentially associated with subjective effect report questions of abuse liability. PLoS ONE, 12(8), e0184220. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidell, J. C. & Halberstadt, J. (2015). The global burden of obesity and the challenges of prevention. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66 (Supplement 2), 7–12. doi:10.1159/000375143Google Scholar
Sinha, R. (2001). How does stress increase risk of drug abuse and relapse? Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 158(4), 343–359. doi:10.1007/s002130100917CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, D. G. & Robbins, T. W. (2013). The neurobiological underpinnings of obesity and binge eating: A rationale for adopting the food addiction model. Biological Psychiatry, 73(9), 804–810. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.08.026Google Scholar
Sorenson, M. (2014). Food Addiction: Current Understanding and Implications for Regulation and Research. https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11938740Google Scholar
Stice, E., Burger, K. S. & Yokum, S. (2013). Relative ability of fat and sugar tastes to activate reward, gustatory, and somatosensory regions. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98(6), 1377–1384. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.069443Google Scholar
Sussman, S. (2017). Substance and Behavioral Addictions: Concepts, Causes, and Cures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sylvain, C., Ladouceur, R. & Boisvert, J.-M. (1997). Cognitive and behavioral treatment of pathological gambling: A controlled study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 727.Google Scholar
Toneatto, T. & Dragonetti, R. (2008). Effectiveness of community‐based treatment for problem gambling: A quasi‐experimental evaluation of cognitive‐behavioral vs. twelve‐step therapy. American Journal on Addictions, 17(4), 298–303.Google Scholar
Tryon, M. S., Stanhope, K. L., Epel, E. S., et al. (2015). Excessive sugar consumption may be a difficult habit to break: A view from the brain and body. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 100(6), 2239–2247. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-4353Google Scholar
Vanderlinden, J., Dalle Grave, R., Vandereycken, W. & Noorduin, C. (2001). Which factors do provoke binge-eating? An exploratory study in female students. Eating Behaviors, 2(1), 79–83.Google Scholar
Volkow, N. D. & Wise, R. A. (2005). How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nature Neuroscience, 8(5), 555–560. doi:10.1038/nn1452CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S. & Telang, F. (2008). Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: Evidence of systems pathology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B, 363(1507), 3191–3200. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D. & Baler, R. (2012). Food and drug reward: Overlapping circuits in human obesity and addiction. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 11, 1–24. doi:10.1007/7854_2011_169Google Scholar
Wadden, T. A., Foster, G. D., Sarwer, D. B., et al. (2004). Dieting and the development of eating disorders in obese women: Results of a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80(3), 560–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walsh, B. T., Kissileff, H. R., Cassidy, S. M. & Dantzic, S. (1989). Eating behavior of women with bulimia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46(1), 54–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Thanos, P. K. & Fowler, J. S. (2004). Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: A concept review. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 23(3), 39–53. doi:10.1300/J069v23n03_04CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, A., Hill, A. & Waller, G. (2001). Internal and external antecedents of binge eating episodes in a group of women with bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(1), 17–22.3.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weingarten, H. P. & Elston, D. (1991). Food cravings in a college population. Appetite, 17(3), 167–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welte, J. W., Barnes, G. M., Wieczorek, W. F., Tidwell, M. C. & Parker, J. C. (2004). Risk factors for pathological gambling. Addictive Behaviors, 29(2), 323–335.Google Scholar
White, M. A. & Grilo, C. M. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Food Craving Inventory among obese patients with binge eating disorder. Eating Behaviors, 6(3), 239–245. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.01.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, G. T. (2000). Eating disorders and addiction. Drugs & Society, 15(1–2), 87–101.Google Scholar
Yanovski, S. Z. (2003). Sugar and fat: Cravings and aversions. Journal of Nutrition, 133(3), 835S–837S.Google Scholar
Yanovski, S. Z., Leet, M., Yanovski, J. A., et al. (1992). Food selection and intake of obese women with binge-eating disorder. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56(6), 975–980.Google Scholar
Zellner, D. A., Loaiza, S., Gonzalez, Z., et al. (2006). Food selection changes under stress. Physiology & Behavior, 87(4), 789–793. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.01.014Google Scholar
Ziauddeen, H. & Fletcher, P. C. (2013). Is food addiction a valid and useful concept? Obesity Reviews, 14(1), 19–28. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01046.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziauddeen, H., Farooqi, I. S. & Fletcher, P. C. (2012). Obesity and the brain: How convincing is the addiction model? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 279–286.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×