References

Richard Johnston; Michael G. Hagen; Kathleen Hall Jamieson

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511756207.010

Achen, Christopher H. 1992. “Social Psychology, Demographic Variables, and Linear Regression: Breaking the Iron Triangle in Voting Research.” Political Behaviour 14: 195–211CrossRef Google Scholar

Aldrich, John H. 1983. “A Downsian Spatial Model with Party Activism.” American Political Science Review 77: 974–90CrossRef Google Scholar

Allsop, Dee, and Weisberg, Herbert. 1988. “Measuring Change in Party Identification in an Election Campaign.” American Journal of Political Science 32: 996–1017CrossRef Google Scholar

Ansolabehere, Stephen, Iyengar, Shanto, Simon, Adam, and Valentino, Nicholas. 1994. “Does Attack Advertising Demobilize the Electorate?” American Political Science Review 88: 829–38CrossRef Google Scholar

Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Iyengar, Shanto. 1994. “Riding the Wave and Claiming Ownership over Issues: The Joint Effects of Advertising and News Coverage in Campaigns.” Public Opinion Quarterly 58: 335–57CrossRef Google Scholar

Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Shanto Iyengar. 1995. Going Negative: How Political Advertising Shrinks and Polarizes the Electorate. New York: Free Press

Ansolabehere, Stephen D., Iyengar, Shanto, and Simon, Adam. 1999. “Replicating Experiments Using Aggregate and Survey Data: The Case of Negative Advertising and Turnout.” American Political Science Review 93: 901–10CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartels, Larry M. 1985. “Resource Allocation in a Presidential Campaign.” Journal of Politics 47: 928–36CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartels, Larry M. 1996. “Uninformed Votes: Information Effects in Presidential Elections.” American Journal of Political Science, 40: 194–230CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartels, Larry M. 1997. “How Campaigns Matter.” Princeton University: unpublished manuscript

Bartels, Larry M. 1998. “Electoral Continuity and Change, 1868–1996.” Electoral Studies 17: 301–26CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartels, Larry M. 2000. “Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952–1996.” American Journal of Political Science 44: 35–50CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartels, Larry M. 2002. “The Impact of Candidate Traits in American Presidential Elections,” in Anthony King, ed., Leaders' Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Bartels, Larry M., and Zaller, John. “Presidential Vote Models: A Recount.” 2001. PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 9–20Google Scholar

Bean, Clive, and Mughan, Anthony. 1989. “Leadership Effects in Parliamentary Elections in Australia and Britain.” American Political Science Review 83: 1165–79CrossRef Google Scholar

Berelson Bernard R., Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee. 1954. Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Biocca, Frank, ed. 1991. Television and Political Advertising, Volume 1: Psychological Processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Brady, Henry E., and Sniderman, Paul M.. 1985. “Attitude Attribution: A Group Basis for Political Reasoning.” American Political Science Review 79: 1061–78CrossRef Google Scholar

Brams, Steven J., and Morton, D. Davis. 1974. “The 3/2's Rule in Presidential Campaigning.” American Political Science Review 68: 113–34CrossRef Google Scholar

Brody, Richard A. 1991. Assessing the President: The Media, Elite Opinion, and Public Support. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Brody, Richard A., and Page, Benjamin I.. 1972. “Comment: The Assessment of Policy Voting.” American Political Science Review 66: 450–58CrossRef Google Scholar

Brody, Richard A., and Rothenberg, Lawrence S.. 1988. “The Instability of Partisanship: An Analysis of the 1980 Presidential Election.” British Journal of Political Science 18: 445–65CrossRef Google Scholar

Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes. 1960. The American Voter. New York: Wiley

Campbell, James E. 2000. The American Campaign: U.S. Presidential Campaigns and the National Vote. College Station: Texas A&M University Press

Campbell, James E.. 2001. “The Referendum that Didn't Happen: The Forecasts of the 2000 Presidential Election.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 33–4Google Scholar

Chaffee, Steven H. 1975. “Asking New Questions about Communication and Politics,” in Steven H. Chaffee, ed., Political Communication. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage (Sage Annual Reviews of Communication Research, Volume 4): 13–20

Colantoni, Claude S., Levesque, Terrence J., and Ordeshook, Peter C.. 1975. “Campaign Resource Allocations Under the Electoral College.” American Political Science Review 69: 141–54CrossRef Google Scholar

Conover, Pamela J. and Feldman, Stanley. 1989. “Candidate Perceptions in an Ambiguous World: Campaigns, Cues, and Inference Processes.” American Journal of Political Science 33: 917–40CrossRef Google Scholar

Converse, Philip E. 1962. “Information Flow and the Stability of Partisan Attitudes.” Public Opinion Quarterly 26: 587–99CrossRef Google Scholar

Converse, Philip E. 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics.” In Ideology and Discontent, ed. David E. Apter. New York: Free Press

DiPalma, Giuseppe, and McClosky, Herbert. 1970. “Personality and Con-formity: The Learning of Political Attitudes.” American Political Science Review 64: 1054–73CrossRef Google Scholar

Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper and Row

Erbring, Lutz, Goldenberg, Edie, and Miller, Arthur. 1980. “Front-Page News and Real-World Cues: A New Look at Agenda-Setting by the Media.” American Journal of Political Science 24: 16–49CrossRef Google Scholar

Festinger, Leon. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Finkel, Steven E. 1993. “Reexamining the ‘Minimal Effects’ Model in Recent Presidential Elections.” Journal of Politics 55: 1–21CrossRef Google Scholar

Finkel, Steven E., and Geer, John G.. 1998. “A Spot Check: Casting Doubt on the Demobilizing Effect of Attack Advertising.” American Journal of Political Science 42: 573–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Fiorina, Morris, Abrams, Samuel, and Pope, Jeremy. 2003. “The 2000 U.S. Presidential Election: Can Retrospective Voting Be Saved?” British Journal of Political Science 33: 163–87CrossRef Google Scholar

Freedman, Paul, and Goldstein, Ken. 1999. “Measuring Media Exposure and the Effects of Negative Campaign Ads.” American Journal of Political Science 43: 1189–1208CrossRef Google Scholar

Ray, Funkhouser. 1973. “The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study of the Dynamics of Public Opinion.” Public Opinion Quarterly 37: 62–75Google Scholar

Gamson, William A. 1992. Talking Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gelman, Andrew, and King, Gary. 1993. “Why are American Presidential Election Polls so Variable When Votes are so Predictable?” British Journal of Political Science 23: 409–51CrossRef Google Scholar

Gerring, John. 1998. Party Ideologies in America, 1828–1996. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Graber, Doris A. 1988. Processing the News: How People Tame the Information Tide. New York: Longman. Second Edition

Green, Donald Philip, and Palmquist, Bradley. 1990. “Of Artifacts and Partisan Instability.” American Journal of Political Science 34: 872–902CrossRef Google Scholar

Hagen, Michael G., Richard Johnston, and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. 2001. “Partisan Stability in the 2000 Presidential Campaign: Evidence from the Annenberg Survey.” Presented at the Conference on Parties & Partisanship, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, October 25–27

Hagen, Michael G., Richard Johnston, and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. 2002. “Effects of the 2000 Presidential Campaign.” Prepared for presentation at the American Political Science Association 2002 Annual Meeting Boston, MA.

Hartz, Louis. 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace

Hetherington, Marc J. 1996. “The Media's Role in Forming Voters' National Economic Evaluations in 1992.” American Journal of Political Science 40: 372–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Holbrook, Thomas M. 1996. Do Campaigns Matter? Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage

Holbrook, Thomas M.. 2001. “Forecasting with Mixed Economic Signals: A Cautionary Tale.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 39–44Google Scholar

Hovland, Carl I., and Irving L. Janis, eds. 1959. Personality and Persuasibility. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press

Inglehart, Ronald. 1997. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Iyengar, Shanto, and Donald R. Kinder. News That Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 1992. Dirty Politics. New York: Oxford University Press

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 1996. Packaging the Presidency: A History and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising. New York: Oxford University Press

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, and Paul Waldman, eds. 2001. Electing the President, 2000: The Insiders' View. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press

Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary A. Copeland. 1991. Negative Political Advertising: Coming of Age. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Johnston, Richard. 2002. “Prime Ministerial Contenders in Canada.” In Anthony King, ed., Leaders' Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Johnston, Richard, André Blais, Henry E. Brady, and Jean Crête. 1992. Letting the People Decide: Dynamics of a Canadian Election. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Johnston, Richard, and Brady, Henry E.. 2001. “The Rolling Cross-Section Design.” Electoral Studies 21: 283–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Johnston, Richard, Michael G. Hagen, and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. 2003. “Priming and Persuasion in the 2000 Presidential Campaign.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, April 3–5, 2003

Just, Marion R., Ann N. Crigler, Dean E. Alger, Timothy E. Cook, Montague Kern, and Darrell M. West. 1996. Crosstalk: Citizens, Candidates, and the Media in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Kahn, Kim Fridkin, and Kenney, Patrick J.. 1999. “Do Negative Campaigns Mobilize or Suppress Turnout? Clarifying the Relationship between Negativity and Participation.” American Political Science Review 93: 877–89CrossRef Google Scholar

Katz, Elihu, and Paul F. Lazarsfeld. 1955. Personal Influence. New York: Free Press

Keith, Bruce E., David B. Magleby, Candice J. Nelson, Elizabeth Orr, Mark C. Westlye, and Raymond E. Wolfinger. 1992. The Myth of the Independent Voter. Berkeley: University of California Press

Kern, Montague. 1989. 30-Second Politics: Political Advertising in the Eighties. New York: Praeger

Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1983. Macroeconomics and Micropolitics: The Electoral Effects of Economic Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Kinder, Donald R. 1986. “Presidential Character Revisited,” in Richard R. Lau and David O. Sears, eds. Political Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. (The 19th Annual Carnegie Symposium on Cognition)

Kinder, Donald R., Robert P. Abelson, and Susan T. Fiske. 1979. Developmental Research on Candidate Instrumentation. Ann Arbor: National Election Study Pilot Study Report

King, Anthony, ed. 2002. Leaders' Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kitschelt, Herbert. 1994. The Transformation of European Social Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kitschelt, Herbert 1996. The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

Klapper, Joseph T. 1960. The Effects of Mass Communication. Glencoe, IL: Free Press

Kramer, Gerald H. 1971. “Short-term Fluctuations in U.S. Voting Behavior,” American Political Science Review 65: 131–43CrossRef Google Scholar

Kornhauser, William. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New York: Free Press

Laakso, Markku, and Taagepera, Rein. 1979. “‘Effective’ Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe.” Comparative Political Studies 12: 3–27CrossRef Google Scholar

, Lau Richard R., Sigelman, Lee, Heldman, Caroline, and Babbitt, Paul. 1999. “The Effects of Negative Political Advertisements: A Meta-Analytic Assessment.” American Political Science Review 93: 851–75Google Scholar

Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Rice, Tom W.. 1983. “Localism in Presidential Elections: The Home State Advantage.” American Journal of Political Science 27: 548–56CrossRef Google Scholar

Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Tien, Charles. 2001. “Modeling the Future: Les-sons from the Gore Forecast.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 21–3Google Scholar

Lipset, Seymour M. and Stein Rokkan, 1967. “Cleavage Structures, Party Systems and Voter Alignments. Introduction,” in S. M. Lipset and S. Rokkan, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives. New York: Free Press, pp. 1–64

Lockhart, Julia K. 2002. “Media References to the Gender Gap during September and October 2000.” Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia, unpublished memorandum

Lodge, Milton, McGraw, Kathleen M., and Stroh, Patrick. 1989. “An Impres-sion-Driven Model of Candidate Evaluation.” American Political Science Review 83: 399–419CrossRef Google Scholar

Lodge, Milton, Steenbergen, Marco R., and Brau, Shawn. 1995. “The Responsive Voter: Campaign Information and the Dynamics of Candidate Evaluation.” American Political Science Review 89: 309–26CrossRef Google Scholar

McCombs, Maxwell, and Shaw, Donald. 1972. “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media.” Public Opinion Quarterly 36: 176–87CrossRef Google Scholar

McGuire, William J. 1968. “Personality and Susceptibility to Social Influence.” In Edgar F. Borgatta and William W. Lambert, eds., The Handbook of Personality Theory and Research. Chicago: Rand McNally

McGuire, William J. 1969. “The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change.” In Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson, eds. The Handbook of Social Psychology, 2nd edition, Vol. 3. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley

McLeod, Jack, Becker, Lee, and Byrnes, James. 1974. “Another Look at the Agenda-Setting Function of the Press.” Communication Research 1: 131–66CrossRef Google Scholar

Miller, Warren E., and J. Merrill Shanks. 1996. The New American Voter. Cagmbridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Mutz, Diana C. 1998. Impersonal Influence: How Perceptions of Mass Collectives Affect Political Attitudes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Mutz, Diana C., and Martin, Paul S.. 2001. “Facilitating Communication across Lines of Political Difference.” American Political Science Review 95: 97–114Google Scholar

Helmut, Norpoth,. 2001. “Primary Colors: A Mixed Blessing for Al Gore.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 45–8Google Scholar

Page, Benjamin I., Shapiro, Robert Y., and Dempsey, Glenn R.. 1987. “What Moves Public Opinion?” American Political Science Review 81: 23–44CrossRef Google Scholar

Palfrey, Thomas R. 1984. “Spatial Equilibrium with Entry.” Review of Economic Studies 51: 139–56CrossRef Google Scholar

Patterson, Thomas, and Robert McClure. 1976. The Unseeing Eye. New York: Putnam

Peffley, Mark A., and Hurwitz, John. 1985. “A Hierarchical Model of Attitude Constraint.” American Journal of Political Science. 29: 871–90CrossRef Google Scholar

Price, Vincent, and John Zaller. 1990. “Evaluation of Media Exposure Items in the 1989 NES Pilot Study.” Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, National Election Study Board of Overseers, technical report

Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster

Rabinowitz, George, and Macdonald, Stuart E.. 1989. “A Directional Theory of Issue Voting.” American Political Science Review 83: 93–121CrossRef Google Scholar

Rahn, Wendy M. 1993. “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37: 472–96CrossRef Google Scholar

Rahn, Wendy M., John H. Aldrich, Eugene Borgida, and John L. Sullivan. 1990. “A Social-Cognitive Model of Candidate Appraisal.” In James Kuklinski and John Ferejohn, eds., Information and Democratic Processes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press

Romer, Daniel, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, and Joseph Cappella. 2000. “Does Attack Advertising Create a Backlash? Mobilize the Other Side? Depress or Increase Support by Those of the Same Party?” in Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Everything You Think You Know About Politics … And Why You're Wrong. New York: Basic Books

Romer, Daniel, Kate Kenski, Paul Waldman, Christopher Adasiewicz, and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. 2004. Capturing Campaign Dynamics: The National Annenberg Election Survey. New York: Oxford University Press

Rosenstone, Steven J. 1983. Forecasting Presidential Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press

Shafer, Byron E., and William J. M. Claggett. 1995. The Two Majorities: The Issue Context of Modern American Politics. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press

Shaw, Daron R. 1999a. “A Study of Presidential Campaign Effects from 1952 to 1992.” Journal of Politics 61: 387–422CrossRef Google Scholar

Shaw, Daron R. 1999b. “The Effect of TV Ads and Candidate Appearances on Statewide Presidential Votes, 1988–96.” American Political Science Review 93: 345–61CrossRef Google Scholar

Shaw, Daron R. 1999c. “The Methods behind the Madness: Presidential Electoral College Strategies, 1988–1996.” Journal of Politics 61: 893–913CrossRef Google Scholar

Simon, Adam F. 2002. The Winning Message: Candidate Behavior, Campaign Discourse, and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Sniderman, Paul M. 1975. Personality and Democratic Politics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press

Sniderman, Paul M., Richard A. Brody, and Philip E. Tetlock. 1991. Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Tuffe, Edward R. 1980. Political Control of the Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

Waldman, Paul, and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 2003. “Rhetorical Convergence and Issue Knowledge in the 2000 Presidential Election.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33: 145–63CrossRef Google Scholar

Wattenberg, Martin P., and Leonard Brians, Craig. 1999. “Negative Campaign Advertising: Demobilizer or Mobilizer?” American Political Science Review 93: 891–99CrossRef Google Scholar

Weaver, David. 1981. Media Agenda-Setting in a Presidential Election. New York: Praeger

Weisberg, Herbert, ed. 1995. Democracy's Feast: Elections in America. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House

Weisberg, Herbert, and David C. Kimball. 1995. “Attitudinal Correlates of the 1992 Presidential Vote: Party Identification and Beyond.” In Weisberg (1995), pp. 72–111

West, Darrell M. 1997. Air Wars: Television Advertising in Election Campaigns 1952–1996. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Second Edition

Wlezien, Christopher. 2001. “On Forecasting the Presidential Vote.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34: 25–31Google Scholar

Wlezien, Christopher, and Erikson, Robert S.. 2002. “The Timeline of Presidential Election Campaigns.” Journal of Politics 64: 969–93CrossRef Google Scholar

Zaller, John. 1990. “Bringing Converse Back In: Modeling Information Flow in Political Campaigns.” In Political Analysis. 1: 181–234CrossRef Google Scholar

Zaller, John. 1991. “Information, Values, and Opinion.” American Political Science Review 85: 1215–37CrossRef Google Scholar

Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Zaller, John. 1998. “Monica Lewinsky's Contribution to Political Science.” PS: Political Science and Politics 31: 182–9Google Scholar