This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the anonymous, but substantial, Hypotypōsis (Outline) of Geography which, like the shorter outline by Agathemeros (Chapter 29 of this volume), was probably written as a new preface to Arrian’s collection of geographical works; it is thought to date from the last third of the 6th century AD and may be by the same author as the Circumnavigation of the Euxine (Chapter 36). The author begins with general principles about the Earth and the continents, before surveying the regions of the oikoumene (inhabited portion of the Earth) systematically, then the ‘gulfs’ of the outer Ocean. After a discussion of the wind rose, the dimensions of the principal seas are given, followed by the climatic zones and details of Lake Maiotis (the Sea of Azov). The chapter introduction shows that the text represents an expansion and update of Agathemeros, incorporating a Ptolemaic understanding of the world.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of testimonia and fragments of Hekataios of Miletos (late 6th–early 5th century BC), selected with a focus on geographical material and arranged as 111 extracts. The chapter introduction situates him within the context of the ‘Ionian Renaissance’, and identifies a determination to systematize the world and its place in the cosmos, as well as to rectify the mistakes of one’s predecessors. Characteristic of his two books is an interest in inland areas, not just coasts, and in a wide span of Europe and Asia–apparently based on personal observations–as well as a response to Homeric geography. His depth of coverage, as well as the choice of a clockwise ‘tour’ beginning in the western Mediterranean, were influential upon his successors.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the geographical testimonia and fragments of Mnaseas (active c.225–c.200 BC), arranged as 53 extracts. The chapter introduction reviews the evidence for his origin (Patara rather than Patrai) and date, and the structure of his geography (at least three books on Europe, followed by at least two on Asia and probably more than one on Africa or ‘Libye’). His work is characterized by a lively interest in mythology, including unique versions of some myths, to which he may have applied a rationalizing approach. The relative frequency with which he is cited suggests that his reputation was high.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the famous treatise Airs, Waters, and Places (c. late 5th century BC), attributed, perhaps incorrectly, to the medical writer Hippokrates of Kos. The treatise sets out a model of how environment and seasonal conditions promote specific physiological conditions in the human body, and assesses the relationship between nature and custom as determinants of the physiology, ethical character, and social organization of Asian peoples, focusing on a comparison between European and Asian Skythians. A final passage identifies the greater variability among Europeans. The chapter introduction suggests a nuanced view of the controversial closing pages of the work: the author does not consistently regard Europeans as superior, but–perhaps under the influence of Athenian power–emphasizes the importance of understanding political systems.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of a geographically focused selection from the fragmentary writings of Eratosthenes of Kyrene (c.280–c.200 BC), arranged as 127 extracts. (Translations of passages from Strabo are adapted with permission from the work of D. W. Roller.) The chapter introduction emphasizes that the modern reception of Eratosthenes gives too much prominence to his measurement of the circumference of the Earth. Insofar as we can rely on the testimony of Strabo, our main source, a more important feature of his geographical work (which was only one part of a massive scientific and literary output) was the further elaboration of his predecessors’ notions of latitude and longitude. This he combined with descriptions of regions across the whole inhabited portion of the Earth, but based on topographical divisions rather than ethnic communities. A new map shows the key points in his division of western Asia into topographical units.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations relating to Menippos of Pergamon (active c.26/5 BC), comprising part of the surviving portion of the epitome (précis) made by Markianos (Chapter 34 of this volume) together with nine further testimonia and fragments. The chapter introduction reviews Menippos’ known Circumnavigation, which seems to have begun in the Black Sea and proceeded, untypically, anti-clockwise round the Mediterranean; his legacy in the work of Agathemeros (Chapter 29) and possibly Arrian (Chapter 27) and the Stadiasmos (Chapter 31); and our probable debt to him for first assembling the corpus of geographical texts which Markianos expanded.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the geographical testimonia and fragments of Eudoxos of Knidos (391/0–338/7 BC), arranged as 79 extracts. The chapter introduction identifies Eudoxos’ multiple areas of expertise and suggests that his original contribution lay particularly in the area of Earth measurement, including what may have been a novel concept of a central parallel of latitude for the inhabited portion of the globe. He did not follow Hekataios’ clockwise organization of material, and knew more about the eastern Mediterranean and adjacent lands than about other regions. Like Hekataios, however, he shows a lively interest in many aspects of human societies and history; he was perhaps aware of Airs, Waters, and Places (Chapter 5 of this volume). His text survived down to Byzantine times and was highly influential.

This chapter presents a revised, annotated translation of Arrian’s published version of his report to the emperor Hadrian (written around AD 131–5, when his consulship was long past) about his tour of duty in the Black Sea, when he led a squadron of ships from Trapezous round the east end of the sea as far as Dioskourias-Sebastopolis. The text mentions several Roman military installations and outlines the geopolitical circumstances of particular districts, as well as listing many harbour and river mouths together with the distances between them. The southern shore of the sea is described in a ‘flashback’, while the north-western and western parts, which Arrian did not reach, are described on the basis of earlier reports. As the chapter introduction points out, the digression near the end of the work about the island of Leuke (mod. Zmiinyi), where Achilles lived after being spirited away from Troy, is thought to be a tacit tribute to Hadrian’s companion Antinoös, who had died in 130. A new map illustrates the stages of the narrative.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the principal testimonia and fragments of Skylax of Karyanda (late 6th century BC), arranged as fourteen extracts. Skylax, we are told by Herodotos, was recruited by King Darius of Persia to explore the Indus. The chapter introduction assesses recent studies that trace the echoes of his travel narrative in Philostratos’ Life of Apollonios (3rd century AD) and suggest that Skylax descended the Ganges to the east coast of India, perhaps voyaging as far as Taprobane (Sri Lanka). A specially drawn map indicates the area within which he most likely travelled.