Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T17:00:38.712Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 8 - Intergroup Processes

Revenge among Youth Living amid Protracted Conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 July 2021

By
Dean O’Driscoll ,
Angelica Restrepo  and
Laura K. Taylor
Edited by
Holly Recchia  and
Cecilia Wainryb
Holly Recchia
Affiliation:
Concordia University, Montréal
Cecilia Wainryb
Affiliation:
University of Utah
Get access

Summary

This chapter applies a developmental approach to understand how intergroup processes shape the emergence of retaliatory motives and behaviors among youth growing up in contexts of protracted intergroup conflict, drawing on research examples from Israel-Palestine, Northern Ireland, and Vukovar, Croatia. Across these conflict-affected societies, reasoning around revenge may be influenced by both personal and collective victimization. As part of the cycle of violence, youth may be motivated to engage in tit-for-tat acts of retaliation through direct exposure to political violence, social identification with conflict-related groups and group norms. Family and broader societal processes may further reinforce desires for revenge by transmitting narratives of ethnic socialization and historic group suffering. Children and adolescents may display variation in intensities of retaliatory behaviors, such as aggression and discrimination, which can contribute to the maintenance of intergroup hostilities across generations. The chapter integrates learnings from the three cases and offers recommendations for peacebuilding interventions.

Keywords

childrenadolescentsprotracted conflictIsraelPalestineNorthern IrelandCroatiarevengeintergroup relationsgroup processes
Type
Chapter
Information
Revenge across Childhood and Adolescence , pp. 187 - 217
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrams, D., & Killen, M. (2014). Social exclusion of children: Developmental origins of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 70(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
Abrams, D., & Rutland, A. (2008). The development of subjective group dynamics. In Levy, S. R. & Killen, M. (Eds.), Intergroup attitudes and relations in childhood through adulthood (pp. 47–65). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Aboud, F. E. (2008). A social-cognitive developmental theory of prejudice. In Quintana, S. M. & McKown, C. (Eds.), The handbook of race, racism and the developing child (pp. 55–71). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Aboud, F. E., & Amato, M. (2001). Developmental and socialization influences on intergroup bias. In Brown, R. & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 65–85). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ajduković, D., & Čorkalo Biruški, D. (2008). Caught between the ethnic sides: Children growing up in a divided post-war community. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(4), 337–347.Google Scholar
Ardila-Rey, A., Killen, M., & Brenick, A. (2009). Moral reasoning in violent contexts: Displaced and non-displaced Colombian children’s evaluations of moral transgressions, retaliation, and reconciliation. Social Development, 18, 181–209.Google Scholar
Barber, B. K. (2008). Contrasting portraits of war: Youths’ varied experiences with political violence in Bosnia and Palestine. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 32(4), 298–309.Google Scholar
Barber, B. K., & Olsen, J. A. (2009). Positive and negative psychosocial functioning after political conflict. In Barber, B. K. (Ed.), Adolescents and war: How youth deal with political violence (pp. 207–237). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Tal, D. (2013). Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., Diamond, A. H., & Nasie, M. (2017). Political socialization of young children in intractable conflicts: Conception and evidence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41, 415–425.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2009). Overcoming psychological barriers to peace making: The influence of mediation beliefs about losses. In Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions and behavior (pp. 431–448). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2011). Socio-psychological barriers to conflict resolution. In Bar-Tal, D. (Ed.), Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective (pp. 217–240). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., Reshef, P., & Blacharovich, M. (2012). Political socialization in Israeli Family: Beliefs, dilemmas, and differences. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., Spivak, K., & Castel-Bazelet, I. (2003). Collective memory of children in kindergarten (age 5–6) as a function of religiosity. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D., & Teichman, Y. (2005). Stereotypes and prejudice in conflict: Representations of Arabs in Israel Jewish Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., & Ahmad, N. Y. (2009). Using empathy to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3, 141–177.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., Chang, J., Orr, R., & Rowland, J. (2002). Empathy, attitudes, and action: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group motivate one to help the group? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1656–1666.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.Google Scholar
Ben Shabat, C. (2010). Collective memory and ethos of conflict acquisition during childhood: Comparing children attending state-secular and state-religious schools in Israel (Unpublished master’s thesis). Tel Aviv University, Israel.Google Scholar
Bennett, M., & Sani, F. (2004). The development of the social self. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., McBain, R. K., & Brennan, R. T. (2014). Trajectories of externalizing problems among war-affected youth in Sierra Leone: Results from a longitudinal study. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(6), 708–714.Google Scholar
Bigler, R. S., Jones, L. C., & Lobliner, D. B. (1997). Social categorization and the formation of intergroup attitudes in children. Child Development, 68(3), 530–543.Google Scholar
Blaylock, D., Hughes, J., Wölfer, R., & Donnelly, C. (2018). Integrating Northern Ireland: Cross-group friendships in integrated and mixed schools. British Educational Research Journal, 44(4), 643–662.Google Scholar
Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Landau, S. F., Gvirsman, S. D., Shikaki, K., & Ginges, J. (2013). Exposure to violence across the social ecosystem and the development of aggression: A test of ecological theory in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Child Development, 84, 163–177.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cairns, E. (1996). Children and political violence. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Cairns, E., & Darby, J. (1998). The conflict in Northern Ireland: Causes, consequences and controls. American Psychologist, 53, 754–760.Google Scholar
Cairns, E., & Roe, M. D. (2003). The role of memory in ethnic conflict. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Connolly, P., & Healy, J. (2004). Children and the conflict in Northern Ireland: The experiences and perspectives of 3–11 year olds. Belfast, Northern Ireland: Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister.Google Scholar
Connolly, P., Kelly, B., & Smith, A. (2009). Ethnic habitus and young children: A case study of Northern Ireland. European Early Childhood Research Journal, 17(2), 217–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Čorkalo, D., Ajduković, D., Weinstein, H., Stover, E., Djipa, D., & Biro, M. (2004). Neighbors again? Inter-community relations after ethnic violence. In Stover, E. & Weinstein, H. (Eds.), My neighbor, my enemy: Justice and community in the aftermath of mass atrocity (pp. 143–161). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Čorkalo Biruški, D. (2016). Determinants of post-conflict trust: The role of ethnic identity, personal and collective victimization and intergroup emotions. In Alon, I. & Bar-Tal, D. (Eds.), The role of trust in conflict situations: The Israeli-Palestinian case and beyond (pp. 59–80). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Čorkalo Biruški, D., & Ajduković, D. (2012). Parallel worlds of divided community: Time does not make much difference. In Simić, O., Volčič, Z., & Philpot, C. R. (Eds.), Peace psychology in the Balkans: Dealing with a violent past while building peace (pp. 177–198). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2013). Statistical information. Published and printed by the Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, M., Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K., & Shirlow, P. (2014). A social-ecological, process-oriented perspective on political violence and child development. Child Development Perspectives, 8(2), 82–89.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K., & Mondi, C. F. (2017). Developmental and social-ecological perspectives on children, political violence, and armed conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 29(1), 1–10.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Schermerhorn, A. C., Merrilees, C. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., & Cairns, E. (2010). Political violence and child adjustment in Northern Ireland: Testing pathways in a social-ecological model including single- and two-parent families. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 827–841.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Shirlow, P. (2016). Emotional insecurity in the family and community and youth delinquency in Northern Ireland: A person-oriented analysis across five waves. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(1), 47–54.Google Scholar
Darby, J. (1983). Northern Ireland: The background to the conflict. New York: Appletree.Google Scholar
Dautel, J. B. (2012). The cost of conflict: Children’s reasoning about ethno-religious identity in Northern Ireland. Perspectives on Europe, 42, 74–78.Google Scholar
De Rivera, J. (2003). Aggression, violence, evil, and peace. In Millon, T. & Lerner, M. J. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Personality and social psychology (pp. 569–598). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., Boxer, P., Landau, S., Dvir, S., Shikaka, K., & Ginges, J. (2012). Exposure to political conflict and violence and post-traumatic stress in Middle East youth: Protective factors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41(4), 402–416.Google Scholar
Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., Boxer, P., Smith, C., Landau, S. F., Dvir Gvirsman, S., & Shakaki, K. (2019). Serious violent behavior and antisocial outcomes as consequences of exposure to ethnic-political conflict and violence among Israeli and Palestinian youth. Aggressive Behavior, 45(3), 287–299.Google Scholar
Duffy, A. L., & Nesdale, D. (2010). Group norms, intra-group position and children’s aggressive intentions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(6), 696–716.Google Scholar
Dvir Gvirsman, S., Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Landau, S. F., Boxer, P., & Shikaki, K. (2016). The longitudinal effects of chronic mediated exposure to political violence on ideological beliefs anout political conflict among youth. Political Communication, 33(1), 98–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Oxford, England: Norton & Co.Google Scholar
Escuin Checa, J., & Taylor, L. K. (2017). Political socialisation. In Moghaddam, F. (Ed.), SAGE encyclopedia of political behavior (pp. 632–635). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.Google Scholar
Ferguson, N., Burgess, M., & Hollywood, I. (2010). Who are the victims? Victimhood experiences in postagreement Northern Ireland. Political Psychology, 31(6), 857–886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, N., & Halliday, D. (2020). Collective memory and the legacy of the troubles: Territoriality, identity and victimhood in Northern Ireland. In Vollhardt, J. R. (Ed.), The social psychology of collective victimhood (pp. 56–74). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Furey, A., Donnelly, C., Hughes, J., & Blaylock, D. (2017). Interpretations of national identity in post-conflict Northern Ireland: A comparison of different school settings. Research Papers in Education, 32(2), 137–150.Google Scholar
Giacaman, R., Shannon, H., Saab, H., Arya, N., & Boyce, W. (2007). Individual and collective exposure to political violence: Palestinian adolescents coping with conflict. European Journal of Public Health, 17(4), 361–368.Google Scholar
Gillespie, G. (2010). A short history of the troubles. Dublin, Ireland: Gill & Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gor, H. (2005). What did you learn at kindergarten today, my sweet child? Militaristic education in the pre-school ages. In Gor, H. (Ed.), The militarization of education (pp. 88–108). Tel-Aviv, Israel: Babel.Google Scholar
Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2008). Political violence in retrospect: Its effects on the mental health of Palestinian adolescents. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 32(4), 283–289.Google Scholar
Halliday, D., & Ferguson, N. (2016). When peace is not enough: The flag protests, the politics of identity and belonging in East Belfast. Irish Political Studies, 31(4), 525–540.Google Scholar
Hancock, L. (1998). Northern Ireland: Troubles brewing. Retrieved January 21, 2020, from http://cain.ulst.ac.uk.Google Scholar
Harland, K. (2011). Violent youth culture in Northern Ireland: Young men, violence, and the challenges of peacebuilding. Youth & Society, 43(2), 414–432.Google Scholar
Huesmann, L. R., Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Landau, S., Gvirsman, S., & Shikaki, K. (2017). Children’s exposure to violent political conflict stimulates their subsequent aggression at peers by increasing their emotional distress and normative beliefs favoring aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 29(1), 39–50.Google Scholar
Hughes, J., Blaylock, D., & Donnelly, C. (2015) Does social deprivation influence inter-group contact outcomes for pupils in Northern Ireland? Ricerche di Pedagogia e Didattica. Journal of Theories and Research in Education, 10(1), 47–65.Google Scholar
Hughes, J., & Donnelly, C. (2002). Ten years of social attitudes to community relations in Northern Ireland. Social Attitudes in Northern Ireland, 8, 39–55.Google Scholar
Jahoda, G., & Harrison, S. (1975). Belfast children: Some effects of a conflict environment. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 3(1), 1–19.Google Scholar
Jarman, N. (2005). No longer a problem? Sectarian violence in Northern Ireland. Belfast, UK: Institute for Conflict Research.Google Scholar
Jarman, N., & O’Halloran, C. (2001). Recreational rioting: Young people, interface areas and violence. Child Care in Practice, 7, 2–16.Google Scholar
Jelić, M., Čorkalo Biruški, D., & Ajduković, D. (2018). Multiple perspectives in post-conflict setting: Implications for intergroup rapprochement. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Kelman, H. C. (2008). Evaluating the contributions of interactive problem solving to the resolution of ethnonational conflicts. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 14, 29–60.Google Scholar
Khattab, N. (2005). The effects of high school context and interpersonal factors on students’ educational expectations: A multi-level model. Social Psychology of Education, 8(1), 19–40.Google Scholar
Kithakye, M., Morris, A. S., Terranova, A. M., & Myers, S. S. (2010). The Kenyan political conflict and children’s adjustment. Child Development, 81(4), 1114–1128.Google Scholar
Kosić, A., & Livi, S. (2012). A study of perceived parental communication and propensity towards reconciliation among youth in Vukovar (Croatia). Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, 11(4), 51–80.Google Scholar
Kosić, A., & Tauber, C. D. (2010). The perspectives of reconciliation and healing among young people in Vukovar (Croatia). International Journal of Peace Studies 15(1), 45–70.Google Scholar
Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building peace: Sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Leonard, M. (2006). Teens and territory in contested spaces: Negotiating sectarian interfaces in Northern Ireland. Children’s Geographies, 4(2), 225–238.Google Scholar
Leonard, M. (2010). What’s recreational about “recreational rioting”? Children on the streets in Belfast. Children & Society, 24, 38–49.Google Scholar
Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T. F., & Schmader, T. (2006). Vicarious retribution: The role of collective blame in intergroup aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 372–390.Google Scholar
MacGinty, R., & du Toit, P. (2007). A disparity of esteem: Relative group status in Northern Ireland after the Belfast Agreement. Political Psychology, 28(1), 13–32.Google Scholar
MacGinty, R., Muldoon, O., & Ferguson, R. (2007). No war, no peace: Northern Ireland after the agreement. Political Psychology, 28(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
Macksoud, M. S., & Aber, J. L. (1996). The war experiences and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Development, 67, 70–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAuley, J. W., & Ferguson, N. (2016). “Us” and “them”: Ulster loyalist perspectives on the IRA and Irish Republicanism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(3), 561–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEvoy-Levy, S. (2006). Troublemakers or peacemakers? Youth and post-accord peacebuilding. Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
McKeown, S. (2014). Perceptions of a superordinate identity in Northern Ireland. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 20(4), 505–515.Google Scholar
McKeown, S., & Taylor, L. K. (2018). Perceived peer and school norm effects on youth antisocial and prosocial behaviours through intergroup contact in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(3), 652–665.Google Scholar
McNeill, A., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2020). “We all suffered!”—The role of power in rhetorical strategies of inclusive victimhood and its consequences for intergroup relations. In Vollhardt, J. R. (Ed.), The social psychology of collective victimhood (pp. 337–357). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Merrilees, C. E., Cairns, E., Taylor, L. K., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., & Cummings, E. M. (2013). Social identity and youth aggressive and delinquent behaviors in a context of political violence. Political Psychology, 34, 695–711.Google Scholar
Merriless, C. E., Taylor, L. K., Baird, R., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., & Cummings, E. M. (2018). Neighborhood effects of intergroup contact on change in intergroup bias. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(1), 77–87.Google Scholar
Merrilees, C. E., Taylor, L. K., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., Cummings, E. M., & Cairns, E. (2014). The protective role of group identity: Sectarian antisocial behavior and adolescent emotion problems. Child Development, 85(2), 412–420.Google Scholar
Moore, D., & Guy, A. (2012). The Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The socio-historical context and the identities it creates. In Landis, D. & Albert, R. D. (Eds.), Handbook of ethnic conflict (pp. 199–240). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Moxon-Browne, E. (1991). National identity in Northern Ireland. In Stringer, P. & Robinson, G. (Eds.), Social attitudes in Northern Ireland (pp. 23–30). Belfast, Northern Ireland: Blackstaff Press.Google Scholar
Muldoon, O. T. (2013). Understanding the impact of political violence in childhood: A theoretical review using a social identity approach. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 929–939.Google Scholar
Muldoon, O., Trew, K. J., Todd, J., Rougier, N., & McLaughlin, K. (2007). The nature of meaning of identity in Northern Ireland after the Belfast Good Friday Agreement. Political Psychology, 28(1), 89–103.Google Scholar
Nasie, M., Diamond, A. H., & Bar-Tal, D. (2016). Young children in intractable conflicts: The Israeli case. Personality and Social Psychological Review, 20(4), 365–392.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D. (2004). Social identity processes and children’s ethnic prejudice. In Bennett, M. & Sani, F. (Eds.), The development of the social self (pp. 219–246). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D. (2007). The development of ethnic prejudice in early childhood. In Saracho, O. & Spodek, B. (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on socialization and social development in early childhood education (pp. 213–240). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D., Durkin, K., Maass, A., & Griffiths, J. (2005). Threat, group identification, and children’s ethnic prejudice. Social Development, 14(2), 189–205.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D., & Flesser, D. (2001). Social identity and the development of children’s group attitudes. Child Development, 72(2), 506–517.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D., Griffiths, J., Durkin, K., & Maass, A. (2005). Empathy, group norms and children’s ethnic attitudes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 623–637.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Durkin, K., & Griffiths, J. (2005). Group norms, threat, and children’s racial prejudice. Child Development, 76(3), 652–663.Google Scholar
Nesdale, D., Milliner, E., Duffy, A., & Griffiths, J. A. (2009). Group membership, group norms, empathy, and young children’s intentions to aggress. Aggressive Behavior, 35(3), 244–258.Google Scholar
Niwa, E. Y., Boxer, P., Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., Landau, S., Shikaki, K., & Dvir Gvirsman, S. (2016). Negative stereotypes of ethnic outgroups: A longitudinal examination among Palestinian, Israeli Jewish, and Israeli Arab youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(1), 166–179.Google Scholar
Niwa, E. Y., Boxer, P., Dubow, E. F., Huesmann, L. R., Shikaki, K., Landau, S., & Gvirsman, S. D. (2016). Growing up amid ethno-political conflict: Aggression and emotional desensitization promote hostility to ethnic outgroups. Child Development, 87(5), 1479–1492.Google Scholar
Noor, M., Brown, R., & Prentice, G. (2008). Precursors and mediators of intergroup reconciliation in Northern Ireland: A new model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47(3), 481–495.Google Scholar
Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. (2012). Census 2011 Key Statistics for Northern Ireland. Retrieved January 21, 2020, from www.nisra.gov.uk/sites/nisra.gov.uk/files/publications/2011-census-results-key-statistics-northern-ireland-report-11-december-2012.pdf.Google Scholar
O’Driscoll, D. (2020). The role of educational psychologists in promoting prosocial behaviours within post-conflict settings. DECP Debate, 174, 24–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Driscoll, D., Taylor, L. K., & Dautel, J. (2018). Intergroup resource distribution among children living in segregated neighborhoods amid protracted conflict. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 24(4), 464–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Driscoll, D., Taylor, L. K., & Dautel, J. (2021). Essentialist beliefs affect children’s outgroup empathy, attitudes and prosocial behaviours in a setting of intergroup conflict. International Journal of Psychology, 56(1), 151–156.Google Scholar
Oren, N., & Bar-Tal, D. (2007). The detrimental dynamics of delegitimization in intractable conflicts: The Israeli-Palestinian case. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31(1), 111–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posada, R., & Wainryb, C. (2008). Moral development in a violent society: Colombian children’s judgements in the context of survival and revenge. Child Development, 79(4), 882–898.Google Scholar
Pehar, L., Čorkalo Biruški, D., & Pavin Ivanec, T. (2020). The role of peer, parental, and school norms in predicting adolescents’ attitudes and behaviours of majority and different minority ethnic groups in Croatia. Plos One, 15(1), e0227512.Google Scholar
Punamäki, R. (1996). Can ideological commitment protect children’s psychosocial well-being in situations of political violence? Child Development, 67(1), 55–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qouta, S., Punamäki, R., & El Sarraj, E. (2008). Child development and family mental health in war and military violence: The Palestinian experience. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(4), 310–321.Google Scholar
Reidy, C. M., Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Ajdukovíc, D., Čorkalo Biruški, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2015). The political socialization of youth in a post-conflict community. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 45, 11–23.Google Scholar
Rutland, A., Killen, M., & Abrams, D. (2010). A new social-cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice: The interplay between morality and group identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 279–291.Google Scholar
Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2008). The wellbeing of children living in chronic war zones: The Palestinian-Israeli case. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(4), 322–336.Google Scholar
Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., Stockhammer, T., & Hood, J. (2002). An ecological framework using risk for exposure to community violence and the effects of exposure on children and adolescents. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7(5), 423–451.Google Scholar
Sani, F., Bennett, M., Agostini, L., Malucchi, L., & Ferguson, N. (2000). Children’s conceptions of characteristic features of category members. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(2), 227–239.Google Scholar
Schnabel, N., & Nadler, A. (2008). A needs-based model of reconciliation: Satisfying the different needs of victim and perpetrator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 116–132.Google Scholar
Sekulić, D., Massey, G., & Hodson, R. (2006). Ethnic intolerance and ethnic conflict in the dissolution of Yugoslavia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 29(5), 797–827.Google Scholar
Shamoa-Nir, L., Razpurker-Apfeld, I., Taylor, L. K., & Dautel, J. B. (2020). Outgroup prosocial giving during childhood: The role of ingroup preference and outgroup attitudes in a divided society. International Journal of Behavioral Development. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Shechtman, Z., & Basheer, O. (2005). Normative beliefs supporting aggression of Arab children in an intergroup conflict. Aggressive Behavior, 31(4), 324–335.Google Scholar
Shirlow, P. (2003). Who fears to speak: Fear, mobility, and ethno-sectarianism in the two Ardoynes. The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, 3(1), 76–91.Google Scholar
Shirlow, P., & Murtagh, B. (2006). Belfast: Segregation, violence and the city. London, UK: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Slone, M. (2003). The Nazareth riots: Arab and Jewish Israeli adolescents pay a different psychological price for participation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 47(6), 817–836.Google Scholar
Slone, M. (2009). Growing up in Israel: Lessons on understanding the effects of political violence on children. In Barber, B. K. (Ed.), Adolescents and war: How youth deal with political violence (pp. 81–104). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slone, M., & Shechner, T. (2009). Psychiatric consequences for Israeli adolescents of protracted political violence: 1998–2004. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(3), 280–289.Google Scholar
Smyth, K., Feeney, A., Eidson, R. C., & Coley, J. D. (2017). Development of essentialist thinking about religion categories in Northern Ireland (and the United States). Developmental Psychology, 53(3), 475–496.Google Scholar
Štambuk, M. (2015). Ecological model of interethnic tensions and child behaviour in post-war community (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Zagreb, Croatia.Google Scholar
Štambuk, M., Taylor, L. K., Löw, A., Čorkalo Biruški, D., Merrilees, C. E., Ajduković, D. & Cummings, E. M. (2020). Parental competitive victimhood and interethnic discrimination among their children: The mediating role of ethnic socialization and symbolic threat to the ingroup. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(1), 87–110.Google Scholar
Stringer, M., Irwing, P., Giles, M., McClenahan, C., Wilson, R., & Hunter, J. (2010). Parental and school effects on children’s political attitudes in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2), 223–240.Google Scholar
Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Kenworthy, J. B., Cairns, E., Marinetti, C., Geddes, L., & Parkinson, B. (2008). Postconflict reconciliation: Intergroup forgiveness and implicit biases in Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Issues, 64(2), 303–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Dautel, J., & Rylander, R. (2020). Symbols and labels: Children’s awareness of social categories in a divided society. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(5), 1512–1526.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., & Hanna, J. R. (2018). Altruism born of suffering among emerging adults in Northern Ireland. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 10, 157–169.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., & McKeown, S. (2017). Youths’ peacebuilding potential: Intergroup contact and civic participation amongst a post-accord generation in Northern Ireland. In Niven, K., Lewis, S., & Kagan, C. (Eds.), Making a difference with psychology (pp. 56–62). London, UK: Richard Benjamin Trust.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., & McKeown, S. (2019). Does violence beget violence? The role of family ethnic socialization and intergroup bias among youth in a setting of protracted intergroup conflict. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 43(5), 403–408.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Campbell, A., Shirlow, P., Cairns, E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., … Cummings, E. M. (2011). Sectarian and nonsectarian violence: Mothers’ appraisals of political conflict in Northern Ireland. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 17(4), 343–366.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Čorkalo Biruški, D., Ajduković, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2017). Complexity of risk: Mixed methods approach to understanding youth risk and insecurity in postconflict settings. Journal of Adolescent Research, 32(5), 585–613.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., Cairns, E., & Cummings, E. M. (2014). Political violence and adolescent outgroup attitudes and prosocial behaviors: Implications for positive intergroup relations. Social Development, 23(4), 840–859.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Merrilees, C. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., & Cummings, E. M. (2016). Trajectories of adolescent aggression and family cohesion: The potential to perpetuate or ameliorate political conflict. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45, 114–128.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., O’Driscoll, D., Dautel, J. B., & McKeown, S. (2020a). Empathy to action: Child and adolescent outgroup attitudes and prosocial behaviours in a setting of intergroup conflict. Social Development, 29(2), 461–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Štambuk, M., Čorkalo Biruški, D., & O’Driscoll, D. (2020b). Transgenerational transmission of collective victimhood through a developmental intergroup framework: The lasting power of group narratives of suffering. In Vollhardt, J. (Ed.), The social psychology of collective victimhood (pp. 37–55). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, L. K., Townsend, D., Merrilees, C. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Shirlow, P., & Cummings, E. M. (2019). Adolescent civic engagement and perceived political conflict: The role of family cohesion. Youth & Society, 51, 616–637.Google Scholar
Tomovska Misoska, A., Taylor, L. K., Dautel, J., & Rylander, R. (2020). Children’s understanding of ethnic group symbols: Piloting an instrument in the Republic of North Macedonia. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 26(1), 82–87.Google Scholar
Tropp, L. R., O’Brien, T. C., & Migacheva, K. (2014). How peer norms of inclusion and exclusion predict interest in cross-ethnic friendships. Journal of Social Issues, 70(1), 151–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verkuyten, M. (2007). Ethnic in-group favouritism among minority and majority groups: Testing the self-esteem hypothesis among pre-adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(3), 486–500.Google Scholar
Vollhardt, J. R. (2020). The social psychology of collective victimhood. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Warshel, Y. (2007). “As though there is peace”: Opinions of Jewish-Israeli children about watching Rechov Sumsum/ Shara’a Simsim amidst armed political conflict. In Lemish, D. & Götz, M. (Eds.), Children and media in times of conflict and war (pp. 309–332). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.Google Scholar
Žunec, O. (1998). Rat u Hrvatskoj 1991.-1995. 1. dio: Uzroci rata i operacije do Sarajevskog primirja [The war in Croatia 1991–1995, 1. Part: The causes of war and military operations till the Sarajevo Peace Accord]. Polemos, 1, 57–89. Retrieved January 21, 2020, from https://hrcak.srce.hr/202398Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×