Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T18:45:01.323Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 20 - Tracking Epilepsy Disease Progression with Neuroimaging

from Part IV - Mapping Consequences of the Disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 January 2019

Andrea Bernasconi
Affiliation:
Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University
Neda Bernasconi
Affiliation:
Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University
Matthias Koepp
Affiliation:
Institute of Neurology, University College London
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Gowers, WR. Epilepsy and Other Chronic Convulsive Disorders: Their Causes, Symptoms and Treatment. London: J&A Churchill; 1881.Google Scholar
Sutula, TP, Hagen, J, Pitkanen, A. Do epileptic seizures damage the brain? Curr Opin Neurol. 2003;16:189–95.Google Scholar
Cascino, GD. Temporal lobe epilepsy is a progressive neurologic disorder: time means neurons! Neurology. 2009;72:1718–9.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, A, Antel, SB, Collins, DL, et al. Texture analysis and morphological processing of magnetic resonance imaging assist detection of focal cortical dysplasia in extra-temporal partial epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2001;49:770–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colliot, O, Bernasconi, N, Khalili, N, et al. Individual voxel-based analysis of gray matter in focal cortical dysplasia. NeuroImage. 2006;29:162–71.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, A, Bernasconi, N, Bernhardt, BC, et al. Advances in MRI for “cryptogenic” epilepsies. Nat Rev Neurol. 2011;7:99108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hong, S, Kim, H, Bernasconi, N, et al. Automated detection of cortical dysplasia type II in MRI-negative epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;83:4855.Google Scholar
Huppertz, HJ, Grimm, C, Fauser, S, et al. Enhanced visualization of blurred gray-white matter junctions in focal cortical dysplasia by voxel-based 3D MRI analysis. Epilepsy Res. 2005;67:3550.Google Scholar
Wagner, J, Weber, B, Urbach, H, et al. Morphometric MRI analysis improves detection of focal cortical dysplasia type II. Brain. 2011;134:2844–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiebe, S, Blume, WT, Girvin, JP, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:311–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engel, J Jr, McDermott, MP, Wiebe, S, et al. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;307:922–30.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Bernasconi, N, Concha, L, et al. Cortical thickness analysis in temporal lobe epilepsy: reproducibility and relation to outcome. Neurology. 2010;74:1776–84.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Chen, Z, He, Y, et al. Graph-theoretical analysis reveals disrupted small-world organization of cortical thickness correlation networks in temporal lobe epilepsy. Cereb Cortex. 2011;21:2147–57.Google Scholar
Hong, S, Bernhardt, BC, Schrader, DV, et al. Whole-brain MRI phenotying of dysplasia-related frontal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2016;86:643–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, CR, Hagler, DJ Jr, Ahmadi, ME, et al. Regional neocortical thinning in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2008;49:794803.Google Scholar
Keller, SS, Roberts, N. Voxel-based morphometry of temporal lobe epilepsy: An introduction and review of the literature. Epilepsia. 2008;49:741–57.Google Scholar
Koepp, MJ, Woermann, FG. Imaging structure and function in refractory focal epilepsy. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:4253.Google Scholar
Woermann, FG, Free, SL, Koepp, MJ, et al. Voxel-by-voxel comparison of automatically segmented cerebral gray matter—a rater-independent comparison of structural MRI in patients with epilepsy. NeuroImage. 1999;10:373–84.Google Scholar
Woermann, FG, Free, SL, Koepp, MJ, et al. Abnormal cerebral structure in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy demonstrated with voxel-based analysis of MRI. Brain. 1999;122:2101–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coan, AC, Appenzeller, S, Bonilha, L, et al. Seizure frequency and lateralization affect progression of atrophy in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2009;73:834–42.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Worsley, KJ, Kim, H, et al. Longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis of atrophy in pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2009;72:1747–54.Google Scholar
Deppe, M, Kellinghaus, C, Duning, T, et al. Nerve fiber impairment of anterior thalamocortical circuitry in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Neurology. 2008;71:1981–5.Google Scholar
Keller, SS, Schoene-Bake, JC, Gerdes, JS, et al. Concomitant fractional anisotropy and volumetric abnormalities in temporal lobe epilepsy: cross-sectional evidence for progressive neurologic injury. PLOS ONE. 2012;7:e46791.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, A, Bernasconi, N, Natsume, J, et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging of the thalamus in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Brain. 2003;126:2447–54.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Rozen, DA, Worsley, KJ, et al. Thalamo-cortical network pathology in idiopathic generalized epilepsy: insights from MRI-based morphometric correlation analysis. NeuroImage. 2009;46:373–81.Google Scholar
Coan, AC, Cendes, F. Epilepsy as progressive disorders: what is the evidence that can guide our clinical decisions and how can neuroimaging help? Epilepsy Behav. 2013;26:313–21.Google Scholar
Duncan, J. The current status of neuroimaging for epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol. 2009;22:179–84.Google Scholar
Kuzniecky, RI, Knowlton, RC. Neuroimaging of epilepsy. Semin Neurol. 2002;22:279–88.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, N, Bernasconi, A. Epilepsy: imaging the epileptic brain–time for new standards. Nat Rev Neurol. 2014;10:133–4.Google Scholar
Duncan, JS. Imaging in the surgical treatment of epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010;6:537–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hong, SJ, Kim, H, Schrader, D, et al. Automated detection of cortical dysplasia type II in MRI-negative epilepsy. Neurology. 2014;83:4855.Google Scholar
Kim, H, Bernhardt, BC, Kulaga-Yoskovitz, J, et al. Multivariate hippocampal subfield analysis of local MRI intensity and volume: application to temporal lobe epilepsy. Med Image Comput Comput Assist Interv. 2014;17:170–8.Google Scholar
Jack, CR Jr, Sharbrough, FW, Cascino, GD, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-based hippocampal volumetry: correlation with outcome after temporal lobectomy. Ann Neurol. 1992;31:138–46.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Hong, SJ, Bernasconi, A, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging pattern learning in temporal lobe epilepsy: classification and prognostics. Ann Neurol. 2015;77:436–46.Google Scholar
Bonilha, L, Keller, SS. Quantitative MRI in refractory temporal lobe epilepsy: relationship with surgical outcomes. Quant Imaging Med Surg. 2015;5:204–24.Google Scholar
Keller, SS, Richardson, MP, Schoene-Bake, JC, et al. Thalamotemporal alteration and postoperative seizures in temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2015;77:760–74.Google Scholar
Kraemer, HC, Yesavage, JA, Taylor, JL, et al. How can we learn about developmental processes from cross-sectional studies, or can we? Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:163–71.Google Scholar
Di Martino, A, Fair, DA, Kelly, C, et al. Unraveling the miswired connectome: a developmental perspective. Neuron. 2014;83:1335–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Mills, KL, Tamnes, CK. Methods and considerations for longitudinal structural brain imaging analysis across development. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2014;9:172–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steen, RG, Hamer, RM, Lieberman, JA. Measuring brain volume by MR imaging: impact of measurement precision and natural variation on sample size requirements. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28:1119–25.Google Scholar
Blumcke, I, Thom, M, Aronica, E, et al. International consensus classification of hippocampal sclerosis in temporal lobe epilepsy: a task force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia. 2013;54:1315–29.Google Scholar
Cascino, GD, Jack, CR Jr, Parisi, JE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-based volume studies in temporal lobe epilepsy: pathological correlations. Ann Neurol. 1991;30:31–6.Google Scholar
Briellmann, RS, Kalnins, RM, Berkovic, SF, et al. Hippocampal pathology in refractory temporal lobe epilepsy: T2-weighted signal change reflects dentate gliosis. Neurology. 2002;58:265–71.Google Scholar
Spencer, SS, McCarthy, G, Spencer, DD. Diagnosis of medial temporal lobe seizure onset: relative specificity and sensitivity of quantitative MRI. Neurology. 1993;43:2117–24.Google Scholar
Van, Paesschen W, Connelly, A, King, MD, et al. The spectrum of hippocampal sclerosis: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Ann Neurol. 1997;41:4151.Google Scholar
Salmenpera, T, Kalviainen, R, Partanen, K, et al. Hippocampal damage caused by seizures in temporal lobe epilepsy. Lancet. 1998;351:35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalviainen, R, Salmenpera, T, Partanen, K, et al. Recurrent seizures may cause hippocampal damage in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 1998;50:1377–82.Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M, Kelly, KG, Parrish, J, et al. Ipsilateral and contralateral MRI volumetric abnormalities in chronic unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy and their clinical correlates. Epilepsia. 2005;46:420–30.Google Scholar
Jokeit, H, Ebner, A. Long term effects of refractory temporal lobe epilepsy on cognitive abilities: a cross sectional study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;67:4450.Google Scholar
Fuerst, D, Shah, J, Kupsky, WJ, et al. Volumetric MRI, pathological, and neuropsychological progression in hippocampal sclerosis. Neurology. 2001;57:184–8.Google Scholar
Marques, CM, Caboclo, LO, da Silva, TI, et al. Cognitive decline in temporal lobe epilepsy due to unilateral hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsy Behav. 2007;10:477–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tasch, E, Cendes, F, Li, LM, et al. Neuroimaging evidence of progressive neuronal loss and dysfunction in temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 1999;45:568–76.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theodore, WH, Bhatia, S, Hatta, J, et al. Hippocampal atrophy, epilepsy duration, and febrile seizures in patients with partial seizures. Neurology. 1999;52:132–6.Google Scholar
Alhusaini, S, Doherty, CP, Scanlon, C, et al. A cross-sectional MRI study of brain regional atrophy and clinical characteristics of temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsy Res. 2012;99:156–66.Google Scholar
Pulsipher, DT, Seidenberg, M, Morton, JJ, et al. MRI volume loss of subcortical structures in unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2007;11:442–9.Google Scholar
Pacagnella, D, Lopes, TM, Morita, ME, et al. Memory impairment is not necessarily related to seizure frequency in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsia. 2014;55:1197–204.Google Scholar
Worrell, GA, Sencakova, D, Jack, CR, et al. Rapidly progressive hippocampal atrophy: evidence for a seizure-induced mechanism. Neurology. 2002;58:1553–6.Google Scholar
Jackson, GD, Chambers, BR, Berkovic, SF. Hippocampal sclerosis: development in adult life. Dev Neurosci. 1999;21:207–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Brien, TJ, So, EL, Meyer, FB, et al. Progressive hippocampal atrophy in chronic intractable temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 1999;45:526–9.Google Scholar
Briellmann, RS, Berkovic, SF, Syngeniotis, A, et al. Seizure-associated hippocampal volume loss: a longitudinal magnetic resonance study of temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2002;51:641–4.Google Scholar
Fuerst, D, Shah, J, Shah, A, et al. Hippocampal sclerosis is a progressive disorder: a longitudinal volumetric MRI study. Ann Neurol. 2003;53:413–6.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, N, Natsume, J, Bernasconi, A. Progression in temporal lobe epilepsy: differential atrophy in mesial temporal structures. Neurology. 2005;65:223–8.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Kim, H, Bernasconi, N. Patterns of subregional mesiotemporal disease progression in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2013;81:1840–7.Google Scholar
Maccotta, L, Moseley, ED, Benzinger, TL, et al. Beyond the CA1 subfield: Local hippocampal shape changes in MRI-negative temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56:780–8.Google Scholar
Yilmazer-Hanke, DM, Wolf, HK, Schramm, J, et al. Subregional pathology of the amygdala complex and entorhinal region in surgical specimens from patients with pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2000;59:907–20.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Bernasconi, N, Kim, H, et al. Mapping thalamocortical network pathology in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2012;78:129–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonilha, L, Rorden, C, Appenzeller, S, et al. Gray matter atrophy associated with duration of temporal lobe epilepsy. NeuroImage. 2006;32:1070–9.Google Scholar
Natsume, J, Bernasconi, N, Andermann, F, et al. MRI volumetry of the thalamus in temporal, extratemporal, and idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Neurology. 2003;60:1296–300.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, A, Tasch, E, Cendes, F, et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging suggests progressive neuronal damage in human temporal lobe epilepsy. Prog Brain Res. 2002;135:297304.Google Scholar
Bertram, EH, Mangan, PS, Zhang, D, et al. The midline thalamus: alterations and a potential role in limbic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42:967–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinjab, B, Martinian, L, Sisodiya, SM, et al. Regional thalamic neuropathology in patients with hippocampal sclerosis and epilepsy: a postmortem study. Epilepsia. 2013;54:2125–33.Google Scholar
Keller, SS, Mackay, CE, Barrick, TR, et al. Voxel-based morphometric comparison of hippocampal and extrahippocampal abnormalities in patients with left and right hippocampal atrophy. NeuroImage. 2002;16:2331.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Worsley, KJ, Besson, P, et al. Mapping limbic network organization in temporal lobe epilepsy using morphometric correlations: insights on the relation between mesiotemporal connectivity and cortical atrophy. NeuroImage. 2008;42:515–24.Google Scholar
Lin, JJ, Salamon, N, Lee, AD, et al. Reduced neocortical thickness and complexity mapped in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Cereb Cortex. 2007;17:2007–18.Google Scholar
Kemmotsu, N, Girard, HM, Bernhardt, BC, et al. MRI analysis in temporal lobe epilepsy: cortical thinning and white matter disruptions are related to side of seizure onset. Epilepsia. 2011;52:2257–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernasconi, N, Bernhardt, BC. Temporal lobe epilepsy is a progressive disorder. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010;6:1.Google Scholar
Caciagli, L, Bernasconi, A, Wiebe, S, et al. Time is brain? A meta-analysis on progressive atrophy in intractable temporal lobe epilepsy Neurology. 2017;89:506–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Concha, L, Livy, DJ, Beaulieu, C, et al. In vivo diffusion tensor imaging and histopathology of the fimbria-fornix in temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosci. 2010;30:9961002.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z, Lu, G, Zhong, Y, et al. Altered spontaneous neuronal activity of the default-mode network in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain Res. 2010;1323:152–60.Google Scholar
Morgan, VL, Rogers, BP, Sonmezturk, HH, et al. Cross hippocampal influence in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy measured with high temporal resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1741–9.Google Scholar
Wang, J, Qiu, S, Xu, Y, et al. Graph theoretical analysis reveals disrupted topological properties of whole brain functional networks in temporal lobe epilepsy. Clin Neurophysiol. 2014;125:1744–56.Google Scholar
Gaillard, WD, Kopylev, L, Weinstein, S, et al. Low incidence of abnormal (18)FDG-PET in children with new-onset partial epilepsy: a prospective study. Neurology. 2002;58:717–22.Google Scholar
Theodore, WH, Kelley, K, Toczek, MT, et al. Epilepsy duration, febrile seizures, and cerebral glucose metabolism. Epilepsia. 2004;45:276–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaillard, WD, Weinstein, S, Conry, J, et al. Prognosis of children with partial epilepsy: MRI and serial 18FDG-PET. Neurology. 2007;68:655–9.Google Scholar
Nordli, DR Jr. Idiopathic generalized epilepsies recognized by the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2005;46(suppl 9):4856.Google Scholar
ILAE. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy: proposal for classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia. 1989;30:389–99.Google Scholar
Andermann, F, Berkovic, SF. Idiopathic generalized epilepsy with generalized and other seizures in adolescence. Epilepsia. 2001;42:317–20.Google Scholar
Gloor, P. Generalized epilepsy with spike-and-wave discharge: a reinterpretation of its electrographic and clinical manifestations. The 1977 William G. Lennox Lecture, American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 1979;20:571–88.Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, H. From molecules to networks: cortical/subcortical interactions in the pathophysiology of idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2003;44(suppl 2):715.Google Scholar
Castro-Alamancos, MA, Calcagnotto, ME. Presynaptic long-term potentiation in corticothalamic synapses. J Neurosci. 1999;19:9090–7.Google Scholar
Meeren, HK, Pijn, JP, Van Luijtelaar, EL, et al. Cortical focus drives widespread corticothalamic networks during spontaneous absence seizures in rats. J Neurosci. 2002;22:1480–95.Google Scholar
Kim, JH, Lee, JK, Koh, SB, et al. Regional grey matter abnormalities in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: a voxel-based morphometry study. NeuroImage. 2007;37:1132–7.Google Scholar
Huang, W, Lu, G, Zhang, Z, et al. Gray-matter volume reduction in the thalamus and frontal lobe in epileptic patients with generalized tonic-clonic seizures. J Neuroradiol. 2011;38:298303.Google Scholar
Kim, JH, Kim, JB, Seo, WK, et al. Volumetric and shape analysis of thalamus in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. J Neurol. 2013;260:1846–54.Google Scholar
Tae, WS, Hong, SB, Joo, EY, et al. Structural brain abnormalities in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy patients: volumetry and voxel-based morphometry. Korean J Radiol. 2006;7:162–72.Google Scholar
Tae, WS, Kim, SH, Joo, EY, et al. Cortical thickness abnormality in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. J Neurol. 2008;255:561–6.Google Scholar
O’Muircheartaigh, J, Vollmar, C, Barker, GJ, et al. Abnormal thalamocortical structural and functional connectivity in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Brain. 2012;135:3635–44.Google Scholar
Koepp, MJ, Woermann, F, Savic, I, et al. Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy—neuroimaging findings. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;28(suppl 1):S40–4.Google Scholar
Kim, JH, Suh, SI, Park, SY, et al. Microstructural white matter abnormality and frontal cognitive dysfunctions in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2012;53:1371–8.Google Scholar
Kim, JB, Suh, SI, Seo, WK, et al. Altered thalamocortical functional connectivity in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014;55:592600.Google Scholar
Xue, K, Luo, C, Zhang, D, et al. Diffusion tensor tractography reveals disrupted structural connectivity in childhood absence epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108:125–38.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z, Liao, W, Chen, H, et al. Altered functional-structural coupling of large-scale brain networks in idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Brain. 2011;134:2912–28.Google Scholar
Bonilha, L, Tabesh, A, Dabbs, K, et al. Neurodevelopmental alterations of large-scale structural networks in children with new-onset epilepsy. Hum Brain Mapp. 2014;35:3661–72.Google Scholar
Tosun, D, Dabbs, K, Caplan, R, et al. Deformation-based morphometry of prospective neurodevelopmental changes in new onset paediatric epilepsy. Brain. 2011;134:1003–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pulsipher, DT, Dabbs, K, Tuchsherer, V, et al. Thalamofrontal neurodevelopment in new-onset pediatric idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Neurology. 2011;76:2833.Google Scholar
Lin, JJ, Dabbs, K, Riley, JD, et al. Neurodevelopment in new-onset juvenile myoclonic epilepsy over the first 2 years. Ann Neurol. 2014;76:660–8.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, BC, Hong, S, Bernasconi, A, et al. Imaging structural and functional brain networks in temporal lobe epilepsy. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:624.Google Scholar
Caciagli, L, Bernhardt, BC, Hong, SJ, et al. Functional network alterations and their structural substrate in drug-resistant epilepsy. Front Neurosci. 2014;8:411.Google Scholar
Dabbs, K, Becker, T, Jones, J, et al. Brain structure and aging in chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2012;53:1033–43.Google Scholar
Woermann, FG, Sisodiya, SM, Free, S, et al. Quantitative MRI in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy: evidence of widespread cerebral structural changes. Brain. 1998;121:1661–7.Google Scholar
Savic, I, Lekvall, A, Greitz, D, et al. MR spectroscopy shows reduced frontal lobe concentrations of N-acetyl aspartate in patients with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2000;41:290–6.Google Scholar
Ronan, L, Alhusaini, S, Scanlon, C, et al. Widespread cortical morphologic changes in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: evidence from structural MRI. Epilepsia. 2012;53:651–8.Google Scholar
Bengzon, J, Kokaia, Z, Elmer, E, et al. Apoptosis and proliferation of dentate gyrus neurons after single and intermittent limbic seizures. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997;94:10432–7.Google Scholar
Bengzon, J, Mohapel, P, Ekdahl, CT, et al. Neuronal apoptosis after brief and prolonged seizures. Prog Brain Res. 2002;135:111–9.Google Scholar
Pitkanen, A, Nissinen, J, Nairismagi, J, et al. Progression of neuronal damage after status epilepticus and during spontaneous seizures in a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Prog Brain Res. 2002;135:6783.Google Scholar
Pohlmann-Eden, B, Gass Peters, A CNA, et al. Evolution of MRI changes and development of bilateral hippocampal sclerosis during long lasting generalized status epilepticus. J Neurol Neurosurgery. 2004;75:898900.Google Scholar
Sutula, TP. Mechanisms of epilepsy progression: current theories and perspectives from neuroplasticity in adulthood and development. Epilepsy Res. 2004;60:161–71.Google Scholar
Bertram, E. The relevance of kindling for human epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2007;48(suppl 2):6574.Google Scholar
Isokawa, M, Levesque, M, Fried, I, et al. Glutamate currents in morphologically identified human dentate granule cells in temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurophysiol. 1997;77:3355–69.Google Scholar
Zilles, K, Qu, MS, Kohling, R, et al. Ionotropic glutamate and GABA receptors in human epileptic neocortical tissue: quantitative in vitro receptor autoradiography. Neuroscience. 1999;94:1051–61.Google Scholar
Ragozzino, D, Palma, E, Di Angelantonio, S, et al. Rundown of GABA type A receptors is a dysfunction associated with human drug-resistant mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102:15219–23.Google Scholar
McLain, LW Jr, Martin, JT, Allen, JH. Cerebellar degeneration due to chronic phenytoin therapy. Ann Neurol. 1980;7:1823.Google Scholar
Papazian, O, Canizales, E, Alfonso, I, et al. Reversible dementia and apparent brain atrophy during valproate therapy. Ann Neurol. 1995;38:687–91.Google Scholar
Pardoe, HR, Berg, AT, Jackson, GD. Sodium valproate use is associated with reduced parietal lobe thickness and brain volume. Neurology. 2013;80:1895–900.Google Scholar
Hao, Y, Creson, T, Zhang, L, et al. Mood stabilizer valproate promotes ERK pathway-dependent cortical neuronal growth and neurogenesis. J Neurosci. 2004;24:6590–9.Google Scholar
Magarinos, AM, McEwen, BS, Flugge, G, et al. Chronic psychosocial stress causes apical dendritic atrophy of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in subordinate tree shrews. J Neurosci. 1996;16:3534–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, WK, Hallmayer, J, O’Hara, R, et al. Design considerations for characterizing psychiatric trajectories across the lifespan: application to effects of APOE-epsilon4 on cerebral cortical thickness in Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168:894903.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×