Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T16:14:36.108Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

32 - Women under Pressure

The Intersection of Stress and Trauma with Aspects of Gender

from Section 6 - Health and Well-Being

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2020

By
Gillian Eagle ,
Susan Ayers ,
Charity Mkone  and
Mapule Moroke
Edited by
Fanny M. Cheung  and
Diane F. Halpern
Fanny M. Cheung
Affiliation:
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Diane F. Halpern
Affiliation:
Claremont McKenna College, California
Get access

Summary

In this chapter we discuss a number of aspects related to how women experience and engage with life stressors, including traumatic events. We seek to answer some of the questions concerning whether, how, and why women may experience stress differently from men.

Keywords

Stresstraumatic stressfear of crimebirth traumaintersectionalityblack womenrefugee women
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women , pp. 459 - 471
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Suggested Readings

Gillian Eagle is a clinical psychologist and Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. She lectures primarily in the field of clinical psychology. Her key research interest is the field of traumatic stress studies, with a particular focus on how traumatic stress responses are shaped by aspects of social identity and social context. She also has a strong interest in gender, violence perpetration, and masculinity. With Debra Kaminer she co-authored the book Traumatic stress in South Africa (2010). Eagle was born in Johannesburg and grew up in Pietermaritzburg, where she went through college and graduate school.

Susan Ayers was born in the USA and grew up in the UK. She is currently a psychologist and Professor at City University of London, in the Centre for Maternal and Child Health Research. Her research examines women’s perinatal mental health, in particular birth trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and high-risk groups such as parents who have preterm or stillborn babies. She is a founder of the International Network for Perinatal PTSD and author of Psychology for medicine (2010), and the Cambridge handbook of psychology, health and medicine (1997).

Charity Mkone is a registered clinical psychologist and Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. She lectures primarily in the field of clinical interventions and community clinical practice. She has a particular interest in the intersection of gender, race, and class in shaping aspects of identity. She is currently completing research into the relationship between African fathers and their daughters.

Mapule Moroke is a counseling psychologist and Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. She lectures primarily on social and community psychology. Her key research interests lie in the field of critical race, gender, class, and intersectionality experience of young adults and adolescents in contemporary South Africa. She also has a strong interest in violence, fear of crime, and masculinity.

Ayers, S., & Sawyer, A. (2018). The impact of birth on women’s health and wellbeing. In Ben-Ari, T. (Ed.), Pathways and barriers to the transition to parenthood: Existential concerns regarding fertility, pregnancy and early parenthood. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Brown, R. (2012). Corrective rape in South Africa: A continuing plight despite an international human rights response. Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law, 18, 45–66.Google Scholar
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105.Google Scholar
Christiansen, D., & Elklit, A. (2012). Sex differences in PTSD. In Ovuga, E. (Ed.), Post traumatic stress disorder in a global context (pp. 113–142). Rijeka: In Tech.Google Scholar
McLean, C. P., & Anderson, E. R. (2009). Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 496–505.Google Scholar
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. (2007). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 183–204.Google Scholar

References

Abrams, J. A., Maxwell, M., Pope, M., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2014). Carrying the world with the grace of a lady and the grit of a warrior: Deepening our understanding of the “Strong Black Woman” schema. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(4), 503–518. doi:10.1177/0361684314541418Google Scholar
Alvassi del Frate, A., & van Kesteren, J. N. (2003). The ICVS in the developing world. International Journal of Comparative Criminology, 2(1), 57–76.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-III. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Ayers, S., Bond, R., Bertullies, S., & Wijma, K. (2016). The aetiology of post-traumatic stress following childbirth: A meta-analysis and theoretical framework. Psychological Medicine, 46(6), 1121–1234. doi:10.1017/S0033291715002706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayers, S., Eagle, A., & Waring, H. (2006). The effects of childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder on women and their relationships: A qualitative study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11(4), 389–398. doi:10.1080/13548500600708409Google Scholar
Balsam, K. F., Beadnell, B., & Molina, Y. (2013). The Daily Heterosexist Experiences Questionnaire: Measuring minority stress among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 46(1), 3–25. doi:10.1177/0748175612449743Google Scholar
Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2007). Behind the mask of the strong Black woman: Voice and the embodiment of a costly performance. New York: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Berman, H., Girón, E. R. I., & Marroquín, A. P. (2009). A narrative study of refugee women who have experienced violence in the context of war. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 41(1), 144–165.Google Scholar
Beswick, D. (2007). Aid and statehood in post-genocide Rwanda: The politics of a donor darling.  PhD thesis, University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Beswick, S. (2001). “ If you leave your country you have no life!” Rape, suicide, and violence: The voices of Ethiopian, Somali, and Sudanese female refugees in Kenyan refugee camps. Northeast African Studies, 8(3), 69–98. doi:10.1353/nas.2006.0003Google Scholar
Bjornstrom, E. E., Kaufman, R. L., Peterson, R. D., & Slater, M. D. (2010). Race and ethnic representations of lawbreakers and victims in crime news: A national study of television coverage. Social Problems, 57(2), 269–293. doi:10.1525/sp.2010.57.2.269Google Scholar
Bosquet Enlow, M., Kitts, R. L., Blood, E., Bizarro, A., Hofmeister, M., & Wright, R.J. (2011). Maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and infant emotional reactivity and emotion regulation. Infant Behavior and Development, 34(4), 487–503. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.07.007Google Scholar
Bowleg, L., Huang, J., Brooks, K., Black, A., & Burkholder, G. (2003). Triple jeopardy and beyond: Multiple minority stress and resilience among Black lesbians. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7(4), 87–108. doi:10.1300/J155v07n04_06Google Scholar
Breslau, N., & Anthony, J. C. (2007). Gender differences in the sensitivity to posttraumatic stress disorder: An epidemiological study of urban young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 607–611. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.607Google Scholar
Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H. D., Kessler, R. C., Peterson, E. L., & Lucia, V. C. (1999). Vulnerability to assaultive violence: Further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29(4), 813–821. doi:10.1017/S0033291799008612Google Scholar
Brown, R. (2012). Corrective rape in South Africa: A continuing plight despite an international human rights response. Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law, 18, 45–66.Google Scholar
Callanan, V., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2015). Media, gender and fear of crime. Criminal Justice Review, 40(3), 322–339. doi:10.1177/0734016815573308Google Scholar
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105. doi:10.1177/0011000006292033Google Scholar
Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 301–328. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650Google Scholar
Christiansen, D., & Elklit, A. (2012). Sex differences in PTSD. In Post traumatic stress disorders in a global context. In Ovuga, E. (Ed.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in a global context (pp.113–142). Rijeka: In Tech. doi:10.5772/28363Google Scholar
Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015). Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 26068. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.26068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, N., Ayers, S., & Horsch, A. (2018). Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder during the perinatal period and child outcomes: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 18–31. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.045Google Scholar
Cooper, M. (2005). Reclaiming the first amendment: Legal, factual and analytical support for limits on media ownership. In McChesney, R., Newman, R., & Scott, B. (Eds.), The Future of media: Resistance and reform in the 21st century (pp. 9–20). New York: Seven Stories Press.Google Scholar
Dikmen, Y. P., Ayers, S., & Phillips, L. (2017). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in pregnancy and after birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 634–645. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.009Google Scholar
Donovan, R. A., & West, L. M. (2015). Stress and mental health: Moderating role of the strong Black woman stereotype. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(4), 384–396. doi:10.1177/0095798414543014Google Scholar
Eagle, G., & Kaminer, D. (2013). Continuous traumatic stress: Expanding the lexicon of traumatic stress. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 19(2), 85–99. doi:10.1037/a0032485Google Scholar
Eagle, G., & Long, C. (2011). In our culture, in our gender: Implications of the culture/gender interface for South African psychotherapists. Feminism & Psychology, 21(3), 336–353. doi:10.1177/0959353511408060Google Scholar
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345. doi:10.1016/S0005–7967(99)00123-0Google Scholar
Ellis, B. H., MacDonald, H. Z., Lincoln, A. K., & Cabral, H. J. (2008). Mental health of Somali adolescent refugees: The role of trauma, stress, and perceived discrimination. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 184–193. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.184Google Scholar
Farrar, T. (1997). The queenmother, matriarchy, and the question of female political authority in precolonial West African monarchy. Journal of Black Studies, 27(5), 579–597. doi:10.1177/002193479702700501Google Scholar
Ferraro, K. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimisation risk. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Field, T. (2010). Postpartum depression effects on early interactions, parenting, and safety practices: A review. Infant Behavior & Development, 33(1), 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.09.008Google Scholar
Forbes-Martin, S. F. (2004). Refugee women. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Galovski, T. E., Mott, J., Young-Xu, Y., & Resick, P. A. (2011). Gender differences in the clinical presentation of PTSD and its concomitants in survivors of interpersonal assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(4), 789–806. doi:10.1177/0886260510365865Google Scholar
Gardner, C. B. (1989). Analyzing gender in public places: Rethinking Goffman’s vision of everyday life. American Sociologist, 20(1), 42–56. doi:10.1007/BF02697786Google Scholar
Garofalo, J. (1981). The fear of crime: Causes and consequences. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 72, 839–857. doi:10.2307/1143018Google Scholar
Garthus-Niegel, S., Ayers, S., Martini, J., von Soest, T., & Eberhard-Gran, M. (2017). The impact of postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms on child development: A population-based, 2-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 47(1), 161–170. doi:10.1017/S003329171600235XGoogle Scholar
Giacco, D., & Priebe, S. (2018). Mental health care for adult refugees in high-income countries. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 27(2), 109–116. doi:10.1017/S2045796017000609Google Scholar
Glover, V. (2016). Maternal stress during pregnancy and infant and child outcomes. In Wenzel, A. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of perinatal psychology (pp. 268–283). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1991). The female fear: The social cost of rape. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, S. F., & Collins, A. (2013). “We face rape. We face all things”: Understandings of gender-based violence amongst female students at a South African university. African Safety Promotion, 11(2), 93–106.Google Scholar
Gqola, P. D. (2015). Rape: A South African nightmare. Johannesburg: M F Books.Google Scholar
Grekin, R., & O’Hara, M. W. (2014). Prevalence and risk factors of postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(5), 389–401. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.05.003Google Scholar
Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4, 79–150. doi:10.1177/026975809600400201Google Scholar
Harding, S. G. (Ed.). (2004). The feminist standpoint theory reader: Intellectual and political controversies. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Haskell, L., & Randall, M. (2009). Disrupted attachments: A social context complex trauma framework and the lives of aboriginal peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3), 48–99.Google Scholar
Heart, M. Y. H. B. (1999). Gender differences in the historical trauma response among the Lakota. Journal of Health & Social Policy, 10(4), 1–21.Google Scholar
Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 377–391.Google Scholar
Hien, D., Cohen, L., & Campbell, A. (2005). Is traumatic stress a vulnerability factor for women with substance use disorders?. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(6), 813–823. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.05.006Google Scholar
Holbrook, T. L., Hoyt, D. B., Stein, M. B., & Sieber, W. J. (2002). Gender differences in long-term posttraumatic stress disorder outcomes after major trauma: Women are at higher risk of adverse outcomes than men. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 53(5), 882–888. doi:10.1097/00005373-200211000-00012Google Scholar
Idemudia, E. S., William, J. K., Boehnke, K., & Wyatt, G. (2013). Gender differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms among displaced Zimbabweans in South Africa. Journal of Traumatic Stress Disorders & Treatment, 2(3), 1340. doi:10.4172/2324-8947.1000110Google Scholar
Kaminer, D., & Eagle, G. (2017). Traumatic stress in South Africa. Johannesburg: Wits University Press.Google Scholar
Kaminer, D., Grimsrud, A., Myer, L., Stein, D. J., & Williams, D. R. (2008). Risk for post-traumatic stress disorder associated with different forms of interpersonal violence in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 67(10), 1589–1595. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.07.023Google Scholar
Keith, V. M., Brown, D. R., Scheid, T. L., & Brown, T. N. (2010). African American women and mental well-being: The triangulation of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. In Horwitz, A. V. & Scheid, T. L. (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems (pp. 291–305). Cambrige: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012Google Scholar
Kira, I. A. (2010). Etiology and treatment of post-cumulative traumatic stress disorders in different cultures. Traumatology, 16(4), 128–141. doi:10.1177/1078390310384401Google Scholar
Kirmayer, L. J., Young, A., & Robbins, J. M. (1994). Symptom attribution in cultural perspective.  Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 39(10), 584–595.Google Scholar
Lane, J. (2013). Theoretical explanations for gender differences in fear of crime: Research and prospects. In Renzetti, C. M., Miller, S. L., & Gover, A. R. (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of crime and gender studies (pp. 75–90). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2009). Gender differences in PTSD in Israeli youth exposed to terror attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(6), 959–976. 10.1177/0886260508319367Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 141–169. doi:10.1002/per.2410010304Google Scholar
Lewis, R. J., Derlega, V. J., Griffin, J. L., & Krowinski, A. C. (2003). Stressors for gay men and lesbians: Life stress, gay-related stress, stigma consciousness, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 716–729. doi:10.1521/jscp.22.6.716.22932Google Scholar
McLean, C. P., & Anderson, E. R. (2009). Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 496–505. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.05.003Google Scholar
Merz, F. (2018). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: World Drug Report 2017. SIRIUS-Zeitschrift für Strategische Analysen, 2(1), 85–86.Google Scholar
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674Google Scholar
Modarres, M., Afrasiabi, S., Rahnama, P., & Montazeri, A. (2012). Prevalence and risk factors of childbirth-related post-traumatic stress symptoms. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 12(1), 88–93. doi:10.1186/1471-2393-12-88Google Scholar
Myers, H. F., Wyatt, G. E., Ullman, J. B., Loeb, T. B., Chin, D., Prause, N., … & Liu, H. (2015). Cumulative burden of lifetime adversities: Trauma and mental health in low-SES African Americans and Latino/as. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(3), 243–251. doi:10.1037/a0039077Google Scholar
Nickerson, A., Bryant, R. A., Silove, D., & Steel, Z. (2011). A critical review of psychological treatments of posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 399–417. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.10.004Google Scholar
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. (2007). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 183–204. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183Google Scholar
Padmanabhanunni, A., & Edwards, D. (2013). Victimisation in the lives of lesbian-identified women in South Africa: Implications for clinical assessment and treatment. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(3), 385–392. doi:10.1080/14330237.2013.10820642CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, K. D., & Ray, M. C. (1990). Fear of crime: An assessment of related factors. Sociological Spectrum, 10, 29–40. doi:10.1080/02732173.1990.9981910Google Scholar
Peters, L., Issakidis, C., Slade, T., & Andrews, G. (2006). Gender differences in the prevalence of DSM-IV and ICD-10 PTSD. Psychological Medicine, 36(1), 81–89. doi:10.1017/S003329170500591XGoogle Scholar
Punamäki, R. L., Komproe, I. H., Qouta, S., Elmasri, M., & de Jong, J. T. (2005). The role of peritraumatic dissociation and gender in the association between trauma and mental health in a Palestinian community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(3), 545–551. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.545Google Scholar
Pyari, T. T., & Ravindran, S. R. (2016). Sex differentials in the risk factors of post traumatic stress disorder among tsunami survivors in Tamil Nadu, India. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 23, 46–50. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2016.07.006Google Scholar
Root, M. P. (1991). Persistent, disordered eating as a gender-specific, post-traumatic stress response to sexual assault. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 28(1), 96–102. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.28.1.96Google Scholar
Rosenman, S. (2002).Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in Australia: Findings in the population sample of the Australian National survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 515–520. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01039.xGoogle Scholar
Roth, S., Newman, E., Pelcovitz, D., van der Kolk, B., & Mandel, F. S. (1997). Complex PTSD in victims exposed to sexual and physical abuse: Results from the DSM-IV field trial for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(4), 539–555. doi:10.1002/jts.2490100403Google Scholar
Sawyer, A., Ayers, S., Smith, H., Sidibeh, L., Nyan, O., & Dale, J. (2011). Women’s experiences of pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal period in The Gambia: A qualitative study. British Journal of Health Psychology, 16(3), 528–541. doi:10.1348/135910710X528710Google Scholar
Sears, B., & Mallory, C. (2011). Documented evidence of employment discrimination & its effects on LGBT people. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute.Google Scholar
Seedat, S., Stein, D. J., & Carey, P. D. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder in women. CNS Drugs, 19(5), 411–427. doi:10.2165/00023210-200519050-00004Google Scholar
Skrbis, Z., Western, M., Tranter, B., Hogan, D., Coates, R., Smith, J., … Mayall, M. (2012). Expecting the unexpected: Young people’s expectations about marriage and family. Journal of Sociology, 48(1), 63–83. doi:10.1177/1440783311408968Google Scholar
Stark, L., & Ager, A. (2011). A systematic review of prevalence studies of gender-based violence in complex emergencies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12(3), 127–134. doi:10.11177/1524838011404252Google Scholar
Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., & Forde, D. R. (2000). Gender differences in susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(6), 619–628. doi:10.1016/S0005–7967(99)00098-4Google Scholar
Szabo, S., Tache, Y., & Somogyi, A. (2012). The legacy of Hans Selye and the origins of stress research: A retrospective 75 years after his landmark brief “letter” to the editor of nature. Stress, 15(5), 472–478. doi:10.3109/10253890.2012.710919Google Scholar
Szymanski, D. M., & Chung, Y. B. (2003). Feminist attitudes and coping resources as correlates of lesbian internalized heterosexism. Feminism & Psychology, 13(3), 369–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talge, N. M., Neal, C., & Glover, V. (2007). Antenatal maternal stress and long‐term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(3–4), 245–261. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01714.xGoogle Scholar
Tang, S. S. S., & Freyd, J. J. (2012). Betrayal trauma and gender differences in posttraumatic stress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(5), 469–478. doi:10.1037/a0025765Google Scholar
Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (2004). Stress burden and the lifetime incidence of psychiatric disorder in young adults: Racial and ethnic contrasts. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(5), 481–488. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.5.481Google Scholar
Van Kesteren, J., Mayhew, P., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (2000). Criminal victimisation in seventeen industrialised countries: Key findings from the 2000 International Crime Victims Survey. The Hague: WODC/NSCR.Google Scholar
Wadhwa, P. D. (2005). Psychoneuroendocrine processes in human pregnancy influence fetal development and health. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(8), 724–743. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.02.004Google Scholar
Wadhwa, P. D., Buss, C., Entringer, S., & Swanson, J. M. (2009). Developmental origins of health and disease: Brief history of the approach and current focus on epigenetic mechanisms. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine, 27(5), 358–368. NIH Public Access. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1237424Google Scholar
Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Sociological Science Quarterly, 6, 681–702Google Scholar
Warr, M. (2000). Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy. Journal of Criminal Justice, 4, 451–483Google Scholar
Widdop, S. E. (2007). European social survey codebook: Round 1 and round 2. London: Centre for Comparative Social Surveys.Google Scholar
Winter, C. (2012). Responding to LGBT health disparities. St. Louis: Missouri Foundation for Health.Google Scholar
Woods-Giscombé, C. L., & Lobel, M. (2008). Race and gender matter: A multidimensional approach to conceptualizing and measuring stress in African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(3), 173–182. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.3.173Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2018). Maternal mortality fact sheet. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortalityGoogle Scholar
Yehuda, R., Engel, S. M., Brand, S. R., Seckl, J., Marcus, S. M., & Berkowitz, G. S. (2005). Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90(7), 4115–4118. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0550Google Scholar
Yonkers, K. A., Smith, M. V., Forray, A., Epperson, C. N., Costello, D., Lin, H., & Belanger, K. (2014). Pregnant women with posttraumatic stress disorder and risk of preterm birth. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(8), 897–904. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.558Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×