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In the 21st century world politics is becoming increasingly multi-nodal and characterized by heterarchy, namely the predominance of cross cutting sectoral mini- and meso-hierarchies above, below and cutting across states. States are becoming “reactive states” as their capacity for “proactive” policymaking and implementation are eroded. This process is leading to an uneven spectrum of market/hierarchy or public/private de facto policymaking processes and diverse types of “capture” between a range of private actors and meso- and micro-hierarchies, institutions and processes. At the same time, global regulation is increasingly fragmented, whipsawed between transnational and subnational private special interest groups, leading to potential crises at a complex range of nodes and levels. The core of this process is the triangulation of (a) the “disaggregated state”, (b) fragmented global governance and “regime complexes” and (c) “sectoral (or functional) differentiation” in the international political economy.
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