This retrospective study highlights the degree of losses and time-course through which the 2015 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks in Ghana were managed. A total of 102 760 birds from 35 farms across five regions in Ghana included in this study were affected. Out of this, 89.3% was from the Greater Accra region. Majority of the birds were culled (94.2%). Adult layers were most affected and destroyed (64.0%), followed by broilers (13.7%). Event initiation to reporting averaged 7.7 ± 1.3 days (range: 1–30 days). Laboratory confirmation to depopulation of birds averaged 2.2 ± 0.5 (0–15) days while depopulation to disinfection took 2.2 ± 0.7 (0–20) days. Overall, some farms took as long as 30 days to report the outbreak to the authorities, 15 days from confirmation to depopulation and 20 days from depopulation to disinfection. On average, outbreak management lasted 12.3 (2–43) days from event initiation to depopulation. The study reveals a significant number of avian losses and delays in HPAI reporting and management by the authorities in Ghana during the 2015 outbreak. This poses a high risk of spread to other farms and a threat to public health. Awareness creation for poultry farmers is necessary for early reporting, while further study is required to set thresholds for the management of such outbreaks by veterinary departments.

During asexual development Plasmodium schizonts undergo a series of complex biochemical and structural changes. Using tightly synchronized cultures of 2 P. falciparum lines (clone C10 and strain ITO4) for light microscopy and fluorescence imaging we monitored the timing and sequence of expression of proteins associated with invasion-related organelles. Antibodies to rhoptry, micronemal and dense granule proteins (Rhoptry Associated Protein 1, Apical Membrane Antigen 1, Erythrocyte Binding Antigen 175, Ring-infected Erythrocyte Surface Antigen) and to pellicle-associated proteins (Merozoite Surface Protein 1, PfMyosin-A) were used. Clone C10 developed faster than ITO4; this difference was also found in the timing of protein expression seen by immunofluorescence. Light microscopic data were combined with transmission electron microscopic analysis using serial sectioning of ITO4 schizonts to determine nuclear number and organellar development. Thus a timetable of schizont structural maturation was established. Generally, the timing of organelle-specific antigen expression correlates well with the ultrastructural data. Rhoptries are formed mainly between second and fourth nuclear divisions, micronemes between the end of the fourth nuclear division and merozoite separation from the residual body, while dense granules are generated mainly after the micronemes. PfAMA-1 appears in micronemes before EBA-175, suggesting micronemal heterogeneity.