From stress-strain curves the tangential, average and secant elastic moduli can be estimated. Elastic moduli of solids have an atomistic background. Strain tensor is defined in matrix form, the elements of which represent relative deformations in respect of coordinate system axis and planes. The Poisson’s ratio ν in anisotropic rocks varies depending on the symmetry of spacing. The Poisson ratio depends on porosity, geometry of porous space, and their saturation. Hooke’s law establishes the linear relationship between the elements of stress and strain matrices. Taylor’s and Sack’s “homogenization” models are used to calculate effective elastic moduli. The averaging procedure after Voigt, Reuss, upper-lower bounds of Hashin–Shtrikman, direct and self-consistent methods and statistical continuum approach are used for calculations of elastic constants. Elastic moduli of rocks depend on pressure, temperature and porosity. Plasticity and viscous behavior may effectively be described by a combination of standard bodies: elastic springs, viscous dashpots, Saint-Venant friction and rupture elements. Their combinations connected in parallel and sequence may describe ductility and progressive failure. Friction in rocks depends on strain rate and the state of sliding contact after the Dietrich–Ruina law. Focus Box 4.1: Poisson’s ratio and crystal anisotropy.

The components of the infinitesimal strain tensor are defined, which represent measures of the relative length changes (longitudinal strains or dilatations) and the angle changes (shear strains) at a considered material point with respect to the chosen coordinate axes. The principal strains (maximum and minimum dilatations) and the maximum shear strains are determined, as well as the areal and volumetric strains. The expressions for the strain components are derived in terms of the spatial gradients of the displacement components. The Saint-Venant compatibility equations are introduced which assure the existence of single-valued displacements associated with a given strain field. The matrix of local material rotations, which accompany the strain components in producing the displacement gradient matrix, is defined. The determination of the displacement components by integration of the strain components is discussed.