The prevalence of intellectual disability (ID) in offender services is higher than in the general population. Identifying offenders with ID in the criminal justice system can be a challenge. It is essential to recognise offenders who may have ID and assess them. Screening offenders for ID is potentially less time consuming and effective in identifying those who would benefit from full assessment. Screening tools such as the LDSQ and HASI have been developed in community and in forensic settings, which have good sensitivity and specificity. Screening for adaptive functioning skills is important when considering the presence of ID that may be difficult to elucidate in a forensic setting. The treatment of offenders with ID requires commitment from staff to support people through levels of security. Adapting treatment strategies is key to treating people. Treatment programmes for offences such as sex offences, fire setting and violence can be adapted successfully to work with people with cognitive impairments. Alternatives to custodial and hospital care are developing where people are diverted from prison to hospital or to appropriate community support.

For most people across the world the availability of the Internet and, in particular, hand-held devices, has had a positive impact on the way that people interact with the world and each other. However, this has also been associated with a number of cybercrimes and the focus of this chapter is online child sexual exploitation and abuse (OCSEA). These crimes include the production, preparation, consumption, sharing, dissemination or possession of CSEM and the solicitation of children for sexual purposes (sometimes called ‘grooming’), whether or not it results, or is intended to result, in a contact offence. It is difficult to make meaningful estimates of the scale of these crimes as conviction data is dependent on an individual being identified and the capacity of law enforcement to analyse the digital data associated with the crime. However, converging data would suggest that these crimes are increasing. OCSEA crimes may take place within a specific country but national and international cross-disciplinary collaboration is needed to both identify, locate and safeguard victims and prevent, investigate and prosecute these crimes. Europe is one region that has given greatest consideration to the issue of child exploitation and in particular child sexual abuse materials. In the last twenty years there has been considerable progress in understanding the demographic profiles of people who commit OCSEA crimes, what motivates them to offend and how they may be assessed in relation to future risks, particularly the commission of contact offences. However, it is unclear why our existing data would suggest that both identified OCSEA offenders and victims are more likely to be White rather than representing country-specific population demographics.