This chapter explores the TBT Agreement of the WTO, it’s case law, and procedural instruments that govern (international) standardization activities and applies them to ICT standards. It discusses the TBT Committee Decision, Code of Good Practice, and ISO/IEC Guide 59 in relationship the procedural expectations these instruments set for standards bodies, but also their relevance for ICT standardization in general. In particular, this chapter focuses on the concept of ICT standards development organizations as the “recognized bodies” with “relevant standardization activities” within the meaning of the WTO, as well as the coverage of private standards by the TBT Agreement. It also discusses the challenges for international standardization that arise from the increasing participation of Chinese stakeholders in standards development processes. Finally, this chapter identifies the shortcomings of the TBT Agreement, its procedural instruments, and the applicable case law when applied to ICT standards and ICT standards bodies.

Voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) play an important role in the structure of cocoa production in Côte d’Ivoire where climate change and land use pressures threaten to reduce supplies. The literature examining the participation of cocoa farmers in certification schemes has primarily emphasised the economic gains farmers perceive from joining these schemes and has offered less insight into the other determinants. These gains, however, are often subject to price volatility, offering only a partial explanation of what drives farmers to join and stay in certification programs. In this chapter, we evaluate household survey data to examine the characteristics of farmers who invest in VSS certification and the outcomes from adoption, including changes in production and management practices at the household level and subsequent environmental and economic outcomes. Using a Logit model, we identify factors that determine farmer adoption of VSS. The study found that socio-economic characteristics (age and sex of the household head, size of household, level of education of the head) and farm-specific factors such as size of land devoted to cocoa cultivation determine farmers’ adoption of certification programs in Côte d'Ivoire.

Voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) seek to improve social and economic outcomes in developing nations through voluntary commitments by firms located in these countries, who can advertise their adherence to the standard through certification and associated labels. VSS are a potential instrument to help achieve some of the objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but the current empirical evidence on their effectiveness is mixed. Distinguishing between Fair Trade VSS developed by non-governmental organizations and corporate-backed private VSS, this chapter disentangles the possible channels through which these two types of VSS regimes may impact on trade and, in turn, on SDGs. We review the evidence in the light of these channels, finding important differences between the two categories of VSS.