This chapter provides a concise but comprehensive overview of body focused repetitive behaviors (BFRBs), focusing on the two disorders recognized in the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual (DSM 5), hairpulling disorder (HPD), also known as trichotillomania, and skin picking disorder (SPD), also known as excoriation disorder. It addresses diagnostic issues, causation, demographics, course of the disorders, comorbidity, prevalence, emotional and interpersonal sequelae, and phenomenology. Furthermore, common misconceptions about BFRBs are addressed, providing the reader with a solid information base upon which to build effective treatment.

In this chapter, we review ten common misconceptions of adaptive trial designs and master protocols encountered during our collective experience in teaching and working in the field of clinical trial research.

History learning in schools often focuses on facts such as dates of important events and names of influential politicians or military leaders. This chapter instead considers history knowledge to be of two types: historical concepts and historical narratives. The chapter reviews two types of conceptual knowledge: first-order concepts like peasants and presidents, and second-order concepts like change and continuity, and cause and consequence. The chapter reviews many features of historical narratives, including the representation of national identity, the role of emotion in learning, the presence of mythical figures and motives, and the national or ethnic search for freedom or territory. A deeper understanding of history requires students to “think historically” – to engage in the professional practices of historians such as gathering evidence, developing theories, and translating the past into the present.

Effective learning requires conceptual change: learning new and correct knowledge while also overcoming and transforming previously held incorrect knowledge. These incorrect conceptions prevent deep learning unless they are transformed into correct ones. These early, common-sense, and incorrect beliefs are sometimes called naïve theories. Most of the research in this chapter concerns physics, biology, and math learning. Jean Piaget’s theoretical work provides an important foundation for conceptual change research, as well as theories in the history and philosophy of science about how scientific disciplines change over time. The author presents a knowledge in pieces theory of how conceptual change occurs during learning.

The chapter outlines five reasons behind the need for new grammatical descriptions: language change, misconceptions about grammar (often based on incorrect rules of thumb), the discovery of new phenomena, the extension of the scope of grammar, and alternative ways of looking at old problems. Then two problems hampering new descriptions are discussed: metalinguistic relativity (the claim that the current grammatical framework and associated terminology is too rigid and prevents novel insights), and poor transmission – a lack of communication between different constituencies of grammarian. Thus many ‘facts’ about English grammar have been known for some time, but have not reached the pedagogic domain.